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Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery
Alexander the Great led one of the most successful armies in history and conquered nearly the entirety of the known world while wearing armor made of cloth. How is that possible? In Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor, Gregory S. Aldrete, Scott Bartell, and Alicia Aldrete provide the answer.
An extensive multiyear project in experimental archaeology, this pioneering study presents a thorough investigation of the linothorax, linen armor worn by the Greeks, Macedonians, and other ancient Mediterranean warriors. Because the linothorax was made of cloth, no examples of it have survived. As a result, even though there are dozens of references to the linothorax in ancient literature and nearly a thousand images of it in ancient art, this linen armor remains relatively ignored and misunderstood by scholars.
Combining traditional textual and archaeological analysis with hands-on reconstruction and experimentation, the authors unravel the mysteries surrounding the linothorax. They have collected and examined all of the literary, visual, historical, and archaeological evidence for the armor and detail their efforts to replicate the armor using materials and techniques that are as close as possible to those employed in antiquity. By reconstructing actual examples using authentic materials, the authors were able to scientifically assess the true qualities of linen armor for the first time in 1,500 years. The tests reveal that the linothorax provided surprisingly effective protection for ancient warriors, that it had several advantages over bronze armor, and that it even shared qualities with modern-day Kevlar.
Previously featured in documentaries on the Discovery Channel and the Canadian History Channel, as well as in U.S. News and World Report, MSNBC Online, and other international venues, this groundbreaking work will be a landmark in the study of ancient warfare.
298 pages, Kindle Edition
First published March 1, 2013
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Displaying 1 - 5 of 5 reviews
February 3, 2015
This book may fill in some gaps in our knowledge of antiquity. While archaeologists have recovered metal armor among ancient artifacts, it still doesn't explain how soldiers could have worn them in harsh climates, or how they (or their city-states) could have afforded it. This intriguing book finds an answer.
The authors were meticulous in their approach: they sought what they could find from history and artifacts, and what pictorial and written accounts mention linen armor. Something as perishable as linen (flax) armor would not have survived as archaeological artifacts, but they did find references that suggested their presence. For instance, they found pictorial and written accounts of women arming men with armor. Metal-working was a man's game at that time, but weaving was not, which corroborates their inquiry.
Having done that, they simulated how this armor could have been made, how it was woven, what textiles (notably flax) would be available at the time, what layering and design would match the accounts, what adhesives would serve to laminate the armor. They researched what labor and craft would be required for linen armor, as opposed to, say, crafting bronze or leather armor, and the comparative cheapness of linen. They go into considerable detail as to the economic and social considerations surrounding it.
The authors tested the armor, wearing it and testing it. This brought unexpected revelations, including the fact that the laminated armor was not only light and supple, but the adhesives made the armor more supple and comfortable in warm weather. They found that the fabric and laminates could stand up to wet weather and still not inhibit movement or range of motion. They found that linen armor wasn't only a cheap alternative to bronze, but was more functional, more comfortable and, in hot climates, more efficient. They subjected the armor to ballistics tests, using the types of arrow and spear tips available in ancient times, and even - eek! - testing it on each other, which suggests the thoroughness of their research and their confidence in it.
Much of the book is technical in nature, and not always an easy read. The ballistics results, tabulated, run over many pages, as does a long discussion on laminate adhesives (the best contemporary laminate glue seems to have been from rabbits). Also, they're detailed in their analysis and inferences of ancient sources: artifacts, the surviving art, the histories and mythologies, takes several pages each.
This book may be of tangential - but real - value to those studying ancient history, of course. It also should be of value to followers of archaeology, military history of the period, or, surprisingly, Biblical scholars. While this book focuses on Hellenic, Macedonian and Persian armies in the period of 650-200 BC, it suggests how, say, Israelites or Philistines might have fielded armies despite their being mineral-poor and lacking the wealth of river-based civilizations like Babylon or Egypt. Bible accounts seem to take armies for granted, but an army requires personal armor, edged weapons, not to mention horses and the rest of it. This book suggests that people who perhaps traded with Greek or Persian civilizations might have been aware of this thrifty technology. Certainly, scholars of the ancient world, of whatever specialty or level of scholarship, will find a niche for this book.
Well-recommended.
The authors were meticulous in their approach: they sought what they could find from history and artifacts, and what pictorial and written accounts mention linen armor. Something as perishable as linen (flax) armor would not have survived as archaeological artifacts, but they did find references that suggested their presence. For instance, they found pictorial and written accounts of women arming men with armor. Metal-working was a man's game at that time, but weaving was not, which corroborates their inquiry.
Having done that, they simulated how this armor could have been made, how it was woven, what textiles (notably flax) would be available at the time, what layering and design would match the accounts, what adhesives would serve to laminate the armor. They researched what labor and craft would be required for linen armor, as opposed to, say, crafting bronze or leather armor, and the comparative cheapness of linen. They go into considerable detail as to the economic and social considerations surrounding it.
The authors tested the armor, wearing it and testing it. This brought unexpected revelations, including the fact that the laminated armor was not only light and supple, but the adhesives made the armor more supple and comfortable in warm weather. They found that the fabric and laminates could stand up to wet weather and still not inhibit movement or range of motion. They found that linen armor wasn't only a cheap alternative to bronze, but was more functional, more comfortable and, in hot climates, more efficient. They subjected the armor to ballistics tests, using the types of arrow and spear tips available in ancient times, and even - eek! - testing it on each other, which suggests the thoroughness of their research and their confidence in it.
Much of the book is technical in nature, and not always an easy read. The ballistics results, tabulated, run over many pages, as does a long discussion on laminate adhesives (the best contemporary laminate glue seems to have been from rabbits). Also, they're detailed in their analysis and inferences of ancient sources: artifacts, the surviving art, the histories and mythologies, takes several pages each.
This book may be of tangential - but real - value to those studying ancient history, of course. It also should be of value to followers of archaeology, military history of the period, or, surprisingly, Biblical scholars. While this book focuses on Hellenic, Macedonian and Persian armies in the period of 650-200 BC, it suggests how, say, Israelites or Philistines might have fielded armies despite their being mineral-poor and lacking the wealth of river-based civilizations like Babylon or Egypt. Bible accounts seem to take armies for granted, but an army requires personal armor, edged weapons, not to mention horses and the rest of it. This book suggests that people who perhaps traded with Greek or Persian civilizations might have been aware of this thrifty technology. Certainly, scholars of the ancient world, of whatever specialty or level of scholarship, will find a niche for this book.
Well-recommended.
September 12, 2020
Great book. Love the research. How they went into the classifications, they’re logic. The practicality of it all. A bit dry but that’s not something you can escape in a very thorough scientific book.
December 12, 2016
"Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor" is a detailed study the authors did on linen corselets using ancient written and visual sources, and what they learned from their reconstructive archaeology efforts. The writing style was formal, yet the information was not difficult to understand or process. The authors realized that their audience was not solely academics, so they wrote in a manner accessible to everyone. They stated that they realized not all of the chapters in the book would equally interest all of their readers since this book would likely have a varied audience: academics, history buffs, reenactors, and others. I was initially interested in the reconstructive archaeology chapters, so I was surprised by how interesting I found the initial chapters.
There were a number of black and white photos and 6 color photos, mainly of ancient art showing this type of armor and of their experiments. The photos did an excellent job of showing what the text was describing. The main text was 168 pages long and used a somewhat denser, smaller-font text than "popular history" books. The next 38 pages were text description of the hundreds of images of linen body armor in ancient art that were used as the basis for this study so others who wish to can find them. The next 44 pages contained the "footnote" information. The biography and index each took 12 pages.
Chapter 1 discussed the mentions of linen armor in ancient texts and the images of Type IV/linen body armor in ancient art. It also described how flax was grown and processed in the ancient world. Chapter 2 discussed common elements seen in the visual sources and the different variations seen--things like how the shoulder straps were secured down, decorative elements, etc. Chapter 3 talked about what type of material was used to make this Type IV armor--only linen, only leather, a combination, metal inserts or scales? And if it was only linen, was it many layers of linen sewn together or many layers of linen glued together or stuffed and quilted linen?
Chapter 4 talked about their reconstructive archaeology efforts to make both sewn and laminated (glued layers of) linen armor. There was enough detail that I felt like I could do the process myself if I wished to. Chapter 5 talked about how they tested the armor, and chapter 6 gave the results (including both charts of numbers and a summary of the data in the text). They mainly tested with ancient arrows, but they also tried other weapons (swords, mace, spear, etc.). They also compared the linen results to tests on the effectiveness of bronze armor. Chapter 7 talked about the practical usability of the armor--mobility, ease of construction and repair, effectiveness of the repair, ability to withstand rain and river crossings, if it got hot when worn in full sun, the weight compared to bronze armor, etc. Chapter 8 talked about who might have made the linen for the armor and the cost in labor or money to produce a linen corselet.
It was interesting to learn how effective and usable linen body armor turned out to be. I felt that the authors gave a fair/balanced analysis of linen body armor and of the possibilities about its manufacture and use. I'd recommend this book to those who think it sounds interesting.
I received this review copy from the publisher through Amazon Vine.
There were a number of black and white photos and 6 color photos, mainly of ancient art showing this type of armor and of their experiments. The photos did an excellent job of showing what the text was describing. The main text was 168 pages long and used a somewhat denser, smaller-font text than "popular history" books. The next 38 pages were text description of the hundreds of images of linen body armor in ancient art that were used as the basis for this study so others who wish to can find them. The next 44 pages contained the "footnote" information. The biography and index each took 12 pages.
Chapter 1 discussed the mentions of linen armor in ancient texts and the images of Type IV/linen body armor in ancient art. It also described how flax was grown and processed in the ancient world. Chapter 2 discussed common elements seen in the visual sources and the different variations seen--things like how the shoulder straps were secured down, decorative elements, etc. Chapter 3 talked about what type of material was used to make this Type IV armor--only linen, only leather, a combination, metal inserts or scales? And if it was only linen, was it many layers of linen sewn together or many layers of linen glued together or stuffed and quilted linen?
Chapter 4 talked about their reconstructive archaeology efforts to make both sewn and laminated (glued layers of) linen armor. There was enough detail that I felt like I could do the process myself if I wished to. Chapter 5 talked about how they tested the armor, and chapter 6 gave the results (including both charts of numbers and a summary of the data in the text). They mainly tested with ancient arrows, but they also tried other weapons (swords, mace, spear, etc.). They also compared the linen results to tests on the effectiveness of bronze armor. Chapter 7 talked about the practical usability of the armor--mobility, ease of construction and repair, effectiveness of the repair, ability to withstand rain and river crossings, if it got hot when worn in full sun, the weight compared to bronze armor, etc. Chapter 8 talked about who might have made the linen for the armor and the cost in labor or money to produce a linen corselet.
It was interesting to learn how effective and usable linen body armor turned out to be. I felt that the authors gave a fair/balanced analysis of linen body armor and of the possibilities about its manufacture and use. I'd recommend this book to those who think it sounds interesting.
I received this review copy from the publisher through Amazon Vine.
November 2, 2024
The first 3 chapters were a bit boring, but was necessary as background for the construction and weapon tests (mostly arrows). The remaining 5 chapters were fascinating. I'm personally convinced that their linothorax is probably correct. I don't doubt there were leather versions, but I assume the majority were laminated linen. The water and wear tests were interesting also.
In short, quality of linen didn't matter. 12mm of laminated linen had the same protection as 2mm of bronze armor and weighed a lot less and was easier to repair. Basically glue + 11 layers of linen were made into a stiff, yet flexible, armor that acted like Kevlar. This protected against most ancient bows and weapons (bronze and iron). A modern bow and arrow would puncture it easily though.
In short, quality of linen didn't matter. 12mm of laminated linen had the same protection as 2mm of bronze armor and weighed a lot less and was easier to repair. Basically glue + 11 layers of linen were made into a stiff, yet flexible, armor that acted like Kevlar. This protected against most ancient bows and weapons (bronze and iron). A modern bow and arrow would puncture it easily though.
April 9, 2023
Very academic in flavour until about half way through when they reported the material they did in reconstructing the armour and testing it. Really didn't need the final third where all the vases steles and stuff got listed.
Displaying 1 - 5 of 5 reviews