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The Frontiers of Imperial Rome
At its height, the Roman Empire was the greatest empire yet seen, its borders stretching from the rain-swept highlands of Scotland in the north to the sun-scorched Nubian desert in the south. But how were the vast and varied stretches of frontier defined and defended?
Many of Rome's frontier defenses have been the subject of detailed and ongoing study and scholarship. Three frontier zones are now UNESCO World Heritage sites (the Antonine Wall having recently been granted this status - the author led the bid), and there is growing interest in their study. This wide-ranging survey will describe the varying frontier systems, describing the extant remains, methods and materials of construction and highlighting the differences between various frontiers. Professor Breeze considers how the frontiers worked, discussing this in relation to the organization and structure of the Roman army, and also their impact on civilian life along the empire's borders. He then reconsiders the question of whether the frontiers were the product of an overarching Empire-wide grand strategy, questioning Luttwak's seminal hypothesis.
This is a detailed and wide-ranging study of the frontier systems of the Roman Empire by a leading expert. Intended for the general reader, it is sure also to be of great value for academics and students in this field. The appendixes will include a brief guide to visiting the sites today.
Many of Rome's frontier defenses have been the subject of detailed and ongoing study and scholarship. Three frontier zones are now UNESCO World Heritage sites (the Antonine Wall having recently been granted this status - the author led the bid), and there is growing interest in their study. This wide-ranging survey will describe the varying frontier systems, describing the extant remains, methods and materials of construction and highlighting the differences between various frontiers. Professor Breeze considers how the frontiers worked, discussing this in relation to the organization and structure of the Roman army, and also their impact on civilian life along the empire's borders. He then reconsiders the question of whether the frontiers were the product of an overarching Empire-wide grand strategy, questioning Luttwak's seminal hypothesis.
This is a detailed and wide-ranging study of the frontier systems of the Roman Empire by a leading expert. Intended for the general reader, it is sure also to be of great value for academics and students in this field. The appendixes will include a brief guide to visiting the sites today.
224 pages, Hardcover
First published December 1, 2011
About the author
David J. Breeze
52 books1 followerDavid John Breeze, OBE, FSA, FRSE, Hon FSA Scot, Hon MIFA is a British archaeologist, teacher and scholar of Hadrian's Wall, the Antonine Wall and the Roman army.
He was the Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments at Historic Scotland and responsible for the nomination of the Antonine Wall as a World Heritage Site.
He was the Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments at Historic Scotland and responsible for the nomination of the Antonine Wall as a World Heritage Site.
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Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews
April 1, 2024
I found this book to be quite interesting. It discusses the nature of Roman frontier fortifications between the 1st and 4th centuries A.D. Although mostly based on the archeological record, the book avoids the tediousness of other archeology-based books on the era by focusing on the overall patterns of fortification construction and organization. And by relying less on literary evidence, you get a fresh perspective on how the Roman frontier system worked and its purpose.
A book that I recommend pairing with this one is Southern and Dixons The Late Roman Army, which has a lot more detail on the forts, fortlets, and towers as far as their shape and layout. Breeze focuses on the bigger picture, and it was nice to have the background on the specifics that he draws on but doesn't linger.
The British and European frontiers receive disproportionate attention, probably because that is where the modern archeological record is richest. All the same, Breeze does speak at least a bit to every frontier and their type: the mountains and deserts of the east and North Africa. He also discusses the frontier in Roman Dacia, which was guarded primarily by the Carpathian Mountains. It nevertheless would have been interesting to learn more about Roman fortifications in eastern Syria, especially because toward the end he speaks to a challenge of the notion that fortifications were less proliferate here because the Romans billeted their soldiers in the cities (the challenge being that there is not much archeological evidence to support that theory).
Somewhat tangentially, that point he makes with regard to the theory of troop organization in the eastern provinces — that Roman troops were likelier to be billeted in existing cities — is interesting because it reminds me of a central tenet in Thomas Burns' excellent Rome and The Barbarians (reviewed here). Burns argues that the shift in military deployments to the Rhine and Danube frontier also changed the distribution of economic activity in the same direction, leading to the development of a frontier society that didn't exist beforehand. In his book, Breeze talks about a comparison between the eastern and western frontiers, supporting the point that in the west the frontier cities came after the military deployments, while the east had a pre-existing tradition of urban culture. Although Breeze doesn't talk about Burns' theory, as it's not directly relevant to his purpose, he does later discuss the role of the frontier. This includes serving the purpose of customs and migration control. Breeze suggests that this role was not necessarily why the frontier fortifications were built, rather it was a function that came with the opportunities generated by the development of the frontier. I found Burns' theory convincing and it was interesting to see some evidence in support.
The section on the Antonine Wall was interesting. Part of why I found this chapter enlightening, aside from the great job Breeze does of discussing its composition, is that there is the question of why it was abandoned. And in answering this question, Breeze draws attention to a major problem the Romans faced: manpower limitations. At first glance, you would think that the shorter-width Antonine Wall would require less manpower than the longer Hadrian's Wall, but the fortification of the Antonine Wall was not just horizontal. A series of forts, fortlets, and towers were built between the two walls as a means of securing the annexed space. All of these required manpower and it seemed that the Romans were unable to provide the necessary soldiers to secure this stretch of Britain over the long run.
What's interesting is that there seems to be a tension between growing manpower requirements in the late 4th century and the logistical, and economic, problem of provisioning this manpower. You see enlargening garrisons in North Africa, the East, and the European frontiers, but also withdrawals from the Agri Decumates — rich farmland between the Rhine and Danube —, southern Mauretania Tingitana (the abandonment of Volubilis), and Dacia. Although Breeze's book is not a direct contribution to the narrative of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, it's hard not to make connections.
Roman frontier fortifications often extended beyond the frontier, as well. There are forts hundreds of kilometers deep into the Arabian desert, for example. Likewise, Septimius Severus built forts very far south of Roman North Africa. Why did these fortifications exist? What was their purpose? Perhaps it varied by fortification and area. But it speaks to Roman attempts to control, or at least influence, polities beyond the frontiers through the deployment of Roman soldiers.
The idea that the role of fortifications could vary is further illustrated by the Saxon Shore forts. Breeze notes that these fortifications were not connected to the interior via roads. He suggests that, rather than being focused on defending against raids, the Saxon Shore fortifications were fortified supply depots to support campaigning in Britain and along the Rhine. Likewise, the fortifications in Mauretania Tingitana may have less to do with border defense and more to do with the control of grazing rights along the western coastline of modern-day Morocco.
The nature of frontier fortifications was also heavily influenced by geography. Although the layout of forts, fortlets, and guard towers varies relatively little between frontiers, how these were organized changed depending on their location. In Britain, and along the Rhine and Danube, the frontiers were characterized by linear fortifications. In the deserts of the east and North Africa, the location of these fortifications depended more on the availability of water. The bigger point Breeze makes is that these differences don't denote differences in defensive strategy, but rather the role of geography.
Overall, I found the book to be quite educational and interesting. Because it's focused on the archeological record, there are many interesting tidbits you learn from inscriptions, as well as evidence from ostraca remains, that you wouldn't learn in a book built more heavily on literary evidence.
A book that I recommend pairing with this one is Southern and Dixons The Late Roman Army, which has a lot more detail on the forts, fortlets, and towers as far as their shape and layout. Breeze focuses on the bigger picture, and it was nice to have the background on the specifics that he draws on but doesn't linger.
The British and European frontiers receive disproportionate attention, probably because that is where the modern archeological record is richest. All the same, Breeze does speak at least a bit to every frontier and their type: the mountains and deserts of the east and North Africa. He also discusses the frontier in Roman Dacia, which was guarded primarily by the Carpathian Mountains. It nevertheless would have been interesting to learn more about Roman fortifications in eastern Syria, especially because toward the end he speaks to a challenge of the notion that fortifications were less proliferate here because the Romans billeted their soldiers in the cities (the challenge being that there is not much archeological evidence to support that theory).
Somewhat tangentially, that point he makes with regard to the theory of troop organization in the eastern provinces — that Roman troops were likelier to be billeted in existing cities — is interesting because it reminds me of a central tenet in Thomas Burns' excellent Rome and The Barbarians (reviewed here). Burns argues that the shift in military deployments to the Rhine and Danube frontier also changed the distribution of economic activity in the same direction, leading to the development of a frontier society that didn't exist beforehand. In his book, Breeze talks about a comparison between the eastern and western frontiers, supporting the point that in the west the frontier cities came after the military deployments, while the east had a pre-existing tradition of urban culture. Although Breeze doesn't talk about Burns' theory, as it's not directly relevant to his purpose, he does later discuss the role of the frontier. This includes serving the purpose of customs and migration control. Breeze suggests that this role was not necessarily why the frontier fortifications were built, rather it was a function that came with the opportunities generated by the development of the frontier. I found Burns' theory convincing and it was interesting to see some evidence in support.
The section on the Antonine Wall was interesting. Part of why I found this chapter enlightening, aside from the great job Breeze does of discussing its composition, is that there is the question of why it was abandoned. And in answering this question, Breeze draws attention to a major problem the Romans faced: manpower limitations. At first glance, you would think that the shorter-width Antonine Wall would require less manpower than the longer Hadrian's Wall, but the fortification of the Antonine Wall was not just horizontal. A series of forts, fortlets, and towers were built between the two walls as a means of securing the annexed space. All of these required manpower and it seemed that the Romans were unable to provide the necessary soldiers to secure this stretch of Britain over the long run.
What's interesting is that there seems to be a tension between growing manpower requirements in the late 4th century and the logistical, and economic, problem of provisioning this manpower. You see enlargening garrisons in North Africa, the East, and the European frontiers, but also withdrawals from the Agri Decumates — rich farmland between the Rhine and Danube —, southern Mauretania Tingitana (the abandonment of Volubilis), and Dacia. Although Breeze's book is not a direct contribution to the narrative of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, it's hard not to make connections.
Roman frontier fortifications often extended beyond the frontier, as well. There are forts hundreds of kilometers deep into the Arabian desert, for example. Likewise, Septimius Severus built forts very far south of Roman North Africa. Why did these fortifications exist? What was their purpose? Perhaps it varied by fortification and area. But it speaks to Roman attempts to control, or at least influence, polities beyond the frontiers through the deployment of Roman soldiers.
The idea that the role of fortifications could vary is further illustrated by the Saxon Shore forts. Breeze notes that these fortifications were not connected to the interior via roads. He suggests that, rather than being focused on defending against raids, the Saxon Shore fortifications were fortified supply depots to support campaigning in Britain and along the Rhine. Likewise, the fortifications in Mauretania Tingitana may have less to do with border defense and more to do with the control of grazing rights along the western coastline of modern-day Morocco.
The nature of frontier fortifications was also heavily influenced by geography. Although the layout of forts, fortlets, and guard towers varies relatively little between frontiers, how these were organized changed depending on their location. In Britain, and along the Rhine and Danube, the frontiers were characterized by linear fortifications. In the deserts of the east and North Africa, the location of these fortifications depended more on the availability of water. The bigger point Breeze makes is that these differences don't denote differences in defensive strategy, but rather the role of geography.
Overall, I found the book to be quite educational and interesting. Because it's focused on the archeological record, there are many interesting tidbits you learn from inscriptions, as well as evidence from ostraca remains, that you wouldn't learn in a book built more heavily on literary evidence.
September 23, 2012
Somehow it had never occurred to me that "frontier" does not mean "Wild West" or even "western edge of the original American colonies." It means... "frontier." This book provides a fascinating view of what it meant to live on the wide-ranging and highly diverse frontiers of the Roman empire. The author provides a plausible analysis of the Roman frontier system.
June 7, 2021
I can surely appreciate that if you are way into Roman details this book will cover everything you need for the frontiers. But if you’re not completely obsessed with everything Rome or not studying it in school, this book is kinda tedious with details. I found it interesting but uneventful.
April 4, 2021
Boring
Too technical and should be read by wonks only. If you want to learn more about Rome and the empire look elsewhere
Too technical and should be read by wonks only. If you want to learn more about Rome and the empire look elsewhere
Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews