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Indiana-Michigan Series in Russian and East European Studies
Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800
"Khodarkovsky provides a detailed chronological narrative of Russia's steppe relations, which conveys brilliantly the depth of Moscow's engagement in the world of steppe politics. . . . This is counterbalanced by insightful thematic discussion of the perennial issues involved. . . . Altogether, an excellent study of a vital dimension of Russia's historical evolution." ―Slavonic and East European Review
". . . the first connected account of Moscow's assertion of military and political control over its steppe frontier. The book's scope is impressive, as it traces the transformation of a turbulent steppe frontier into an imperial borderland. . . . a signal contribution to our understanding of European history." ―American Historical Review
Drawing on sources and archival materials in Russian and Turkic languages, Russia's Steppe Frontier presents a complex picture of the encounter between indigenous peoples and the Russians. An original and invaluable resource for understanding Russia's imperial experience.
". . . the first connected account of Moscow's assertion of military and political control over its steppe frontier. The book's scope is impressive, as it traces the transformation of a turbulent steppe frontier into an imperial borderland. . . . a signal contribution to our understanding of European history." ―American Historical Review
Drawing on sources and archival materials in Russian and Turkic languages, Russia's Steppe Frontier presents a complex picture of the encounter between indigenous peoples and the Russians. An original and invaluable resource for understanding Russia's imperial experience.
304 pages, Paperback
First published January 16, 2002
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385 people want to read
About the author
Michael Khodarkovsky
11 books10 followersMichael Khodarkovsky is a Professor of History at Loyola University Chicago where he teaches courses in Russian Empire, comparative empires, colonialism, and Western civilization. He specializes in the history of Russia's imperial expansion into the Eurasian borderlands.
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Displaying 1 - 17 of 17 reviews
April 24, 2010
Khodarkovsky seeks to answer two central questions: 1) How did Moscow succeed in transforming the southern frontier into a part of the Russian Empire, and the steppe people into imperial subjects 2) What impact did the rapidly changing fortunes of various steppe confederations have on Russia--its ideologies, policies and institutions?
The author maintains that Russian expansion (late 15th to the late 18th centuries) to the south and east was not haphazard, as often portrayed, but deliberate. He argues that a conflict between the Russian state and the steppe societies was inevitable given the "fundamental structural incompatibilities of the two entities." The Russians, with their European viewpoint, and the steppe people with their own biases, often misunderstood their relationship with one another (e.g. Moscow often consider the "gifts" it gave as annuities from the Tsar to his subjects, while the steppe recipients misunderstood these "gifts" as either tribute from a weaker power, or an attempt by one of many powers--Ottomans, Persians, Chinese--to buy their loyalty, all of which they accepted.)
Khodarkovsky describes Russian relations with the remnants of the Golden Horde (the Nogays, the Khanates of Astrakhan, Crimea and Kazan), the Kazakhs, the Kalmyks and the people of the North Caucasus (though he doesn't spend much time on the North Caucasus inasmuch as many of it's societies were mountaineers as opposed to steppe people). He covers the problem of raiding and slavery--two bones of contention between a primarily settled/agricultural society and a primarily nomadic/herding society--particularly in regards to Russian protection of Orthodox Chritians against slavery. This neatly packages economic, cultural (religious) and social differences between the two societies.
The higlight of the study for me was the author's discussion of the various streams of Moscow's state/imperial ideology. He analyzes the role of Ivan IV (the terrible) in portraying Muscovy as heir to the Greek Orthodox glory of Byzantium, conquered by the Ottomans a century before, but also the only legitimate heir to the leadership of the Golden Horde and the legacy of Chinggis Khan. It was in pursuit of legitimizing this latter claim that Ivan Grozny conquered Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1554. It really lays bare the age-old schizophrenic nature of Russia's role on the world stage, trying to bridge the gap between West and East, playing an important role in both.
Khodarkovsky examines Russia's (Muscovy's) transformation from a client of a steppe empire to a colonial master of steppe peoples, surpassing them in wealth and political and military might. Muscovy's "gifts" to native leaders, as in other colonial states, helped shift the balance of power in native socities, moving the boundaries of the membership of the elite. However, he also makes clear just how long Muscovy remained weaker, or at least roughly equal, to its neighbors, much longer than is commonly supposed. For example, the 1480 "Stand on the Urga" has often been portrayed in Russian historiography as the decisive moment in Muscovy's casting off of the 200 year old "Mongol Yoke." However, the Crimean Khanate considered Moscow a tributary state for years to come after that time and dealt a serious blow to the Russian state during their combined campaign with Kazan against Moscow in 1521 (they burnt Moscow in 1571). In other words, the collapse of the Golden Horde did not spell automatic sovereignty for Moscow. In fact, in the first half of the 17th century Moscow paid 1 million rubles to the Crimea in tribute and taxes, and the Crimea captured between 150,000 and 200,000 Russian subjects. Interestingly, Khodarkovsky remarks that this enormous loss of revenue may have led to the under-urbanization of Russia in the early 17th century.
The author maintains that Russian expansion (late 15th to the late 18th centuries) to the south and east was not haphazard, as often portrayed, but deliberate. He argues that a conflict between the Russian state and the steppe societies was inevitable given the "fundamental structural incompatibilities of the two entities." The Russians, with their European viewpoint, and the steppe people with their own biases, often misunderstood their relationship with one another (e.g. Moscow often consider the "gifts" it gave as annuities from the Tsar to his subjects, while the steppe recipients misunderstood these "gifts" as either tribute from a weaker power, or an attempt by one of many powers--Ottomans, Persians, Chinese--to buy their loyalty, all of which they accepted.)
Khodarkovsky describes Russian relations with the remnants of the Golden Horde (the Nogays, the Khanates of Astrakhan, Crimea and Kazan), the Kazakhs, the Kalmyks and the people of the North Caucasus (though he doesn't spend much time on the North Caucasus inasmuch as many of it's societies were mountaineers as opposed to steppe people). He covers the problem of raiding and slavery--two bones of contention between a primarily settled/agricultural society and a primarily nomadic/herding society--particularly in regards to Russian protection of Orthodox Chritians against slavery. This neatly packages economic, cultural (religious) and social differences between the two societies.
The higlight of the study for me was the author's discussion of the various streams of Moscow's state/imperial ideology. He analyzes the role of Ivan IV (the terrible) in portraying Muscovy as heir to the Greek Orthodox glory of Byzantium, conquered by the Ottomans a century before, but also the only legitimate heir to the leadership of the Golden Horde and the legacy of Chinggis Khan. It was in pursuit of legitimizing this latter claim that Ivan Grozny conquered Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1554. It really lays bare the age-old schizophrenic nature of Russia's role on the world stage, trying to bridge the gap between West and East, playing an important role in both.
Khodarkovsky examines Russia's (Muscovy's) transformation from a client of a steppe empire to a colonial master of steppe peoples, surpassing them in wealth and political and military might. Muscovy's "gifts" to native leaders, as in other colonial states, helped shift the balance of power in native socities, moving the boundaries of the membership of the elite. However, he also makes clear just how long Muscovy remained weaker, or at least roughly equal, to its neighbors, much longer than is commonly supposed. For example, the 1480 "Stand on the Urga" has often been portrayed in Russian historiography as the decisive moment in Muscovy's casting off of the 200 year old "Mongol Yoke." However, the Crimean Khanate considered Moscow a tributary state for years to come after that time and dealt a serious blow to the Russian state during their combined campaign with Kazan against Moscow in 1521 (they burnt Moscow in 1571). In other words, the collapse of the Golden Horde did not spell automatic sovereignty for Moscow. In fact, in the first half of the 17th century Moscow paid 1 million rubles to the Crimea in tribute and taxes, and the Crimea captured between 150,000 and 200,000 Russian subjects. Interestingly, Khodarkovsky remarks that this enormous loss of revenue may have led to the under-urbanization of Russia in the early 17th century.
October 14, 2018
A well-documented history of Russian colonial policies towards Turko-Mongol steppe 'ulus'-communities . Also provides detailed information regarding the Tsardom's southern expansion which the Russian History books generally ignore.
April 23, 2020
A fascinating look at Russia's expansion east, focusing on the movement south and east into the predominantly Muslim lands (with the notable exception of the Buddhist Kolmyks) of the Steppe. The book not only presents the historical expansion of Russia into the Steppe lands, but also looks at the ever changing relationship between the Russians and the peoples of the Steppe, the policies employed by Russia, the policies/perspectives of the indigenous people, and even the developing rationale behind Russia's expansion east and south.
May 6, 2021
"Russia's Steppe Frontier" is a crucial missing piece of history that addresses a fascinating subject in great technical depth.
I read several books in the past few years on the Steppes, which is essentially a giant cauldron of peoples - a stir on one side causes ripples which land on the shores of the major Eurasian civilizations. From the Aryans to the Scythians, the Xiong-nu, the Kushans, the Huns, the Turks and finally, the Mongols; ancient and medieval history is replete with major changes caused by the Steppe peoples.
And yet, the story suddenly stops after the Mongol Khanates fade into history. I was very curious to understand what happened and Khodarkovsky's book is the only one I've found so far. (If you have any recommendations, please let me know).
This book covers the period from the rise of Muscovy in the 15th century to the subjugation of the Kazhaks in the 18th. The book structure is very weird. The first part is analytical, explaining various political, diplomatic, religious and socio-economic institutions on both sides of Russia's porous frontier. The second part is the meaty one - an account of the events and actors that would make a thrilling TV series. The third part is again analytical and ends with a brilliant conclusion. It is by no means a narrative history. I hope that a new set of editors work on a revised edition which will make this a more enjoyable read rather than a textbook read.
Though the author explains thoroughly why and how Russia conquered the Steppes, there are three important pieces that I found missing:
1. Why did the other periphery civilizations - China, India, Persia and Anatolia - NOT conquer these regions that had threatened them for millennia?
2. What about the vaunted Steppe military tactic of missile cavalry? Why did it not succeed against Russians? (Khodarkovsky offers no examples of the role of gunpowder).
3. What about the European shipping revolution that shifted the axis of Trans-Eurasian trade from the Silk Road to the oceans? Surely that was a tectonic change for Central Asia.
I'm logging my analysis for the sake of my recollection-
The power vacuum left by the infighting between Mongol successor states was filled by Muscovy. Unlike other states, Muscovy had a porous border with the Steppe. This made dealing with the nomadic people an imminent problem for the Russians. From the Great Horde to the Crimeans to the Nogays to the Kalmyks to the Kazhaks, all peoples ultimately fell to the same carrot and stick tactics of the Russians. With the advent of the modern age, the pendulum of power swung irrevocably towards the Russians.
Here is a simplistic timeline of the Steppes:
13th century - Mongol conquest
14th century - Mongol hegemony
15th century - Rise of Muscovy amidst constant khaganate raiding
16th century - Muscovite expansion begins
17th century - Crimea, Nogays and Kalmyks
18th century - Kazhaks
19th century - Present borders
I read several books in the past few years on the Steppes, which is essentially a giant cauldron of peoples - a stir on one side causes ripples which land on the shores of the major Eurasian civilizations. From the Aryans to the Scythians, the Xiong-nu, the Kushans, the Huns, the Turks and finally, the Mongols; ancient and medieval history is replete with major changes caused by the Steppe peoples.
And yet, the story suddenly stops after the Mongol Khanates fade into history. I was very curious to understand what happened and Khodarkovsky's book is the only one I've found so far. (If you have any recommendations, please let me know).
This book covers the period from the rise of Muscovy in the 15th century to the subjugation of the Kazhaks in the 18th. The book structure is very weird. The first part is analytical, explaining various political, diplomatic, religious and socio-economic institutions on both sides of Russia's porous frontier. The second part is the meaty one - an account of the events and actors that would make a thrilling TV series. The third part is again analytical and ends with a brilliant conclusion. It is by no means a narrative history. I hope that a new set of editors work on a revised edition which will make this a more enjoyable read rather than a textbook read.
Though the author explains thoroughly why and how Russia conquered the Steppes, there are three important pieces that I found missing:
1. Why did the other periphery civilizations - China, India, Persia and Anatolia - NOT conquer these regions that had threatened them for millennia?
2. What about the vaunted Steppe military tactic of missile cavalry? Why did it not succeed against Russians? (Khodarkovsky offers no examples of the role of gunpowder).
3. What about the European shipping revolution that shifted the axis of Trans-Eurasian trade from the Silk Road to the oceans? Surely that was a tectonic change for Central Asia.
I'm logging my analysis for the sake of my recollection-
The power vacuum left by the infighting between Mongol successor states was filled by Muscovy. Unlike other states, Muscovy had a porous border with the Steppe. This made dealing with the nomadic people an imminent problem for the Russians. From the Great Horde to the Crimeans to the Nogays to the Kalmyks to the Kazhaks, all peoples ultimately fell to the same carrot and stick tactics of the Russians. With the advent of the modern age, the pendulum of power swung irrevocably towards the Russians.
Here is a simplistic timeline of the Steppes:
13th century - Mongol conquest
14th century - Mongol hegemony
15th century - Rise of Muscovy amidst constant khaganate raiding
16th century - Muscovite expansion begins
17th century - Crimea, Nogays and Kalmyks
18th century - Kazhaks
19th century - Present borders
January 6, 2018
Russia's Steppe Frontier is a compelling examination of the changing relationships between the expanding Russian Empire and the largely nomadic people who lived on the Eurasian steppe. Drawing on extensive research from Russian archives, Khodarkovsky illustrates the transition from Muscovy's role as an inheritor of the traditional diplomacy of a Golden Horde state (tribute, hostages) to the Russian imperial practices of an early modern nation state (administrative organizations, religious proselytizing, infrastructure construction). What made this work particularly fascinating was the detailed look at how the indigenous peoples reacted as they tried to cope (unsuccessfully) with the relentless expansion of Russian power. The sad story of the Kalmyk, who arrived in the steppe as conquerors and retreated 300 years later as a defeated, broken people is especially illuminating.
July 28, 2023
Excellent book. Anyone who is interested in history, in particular the history of Russia, I highly recommend. I myself come from Central Asia, many things were a revelation for me. For some reason, the history of Russia is studied with a view to the west (Saint-Peterburg is "window" to Europe), but in fact Russia has about half of the borders (frontiers) with the peoples of the east and south. And Orenburg is "window" to east steppe. All in all, a very useful book.
Отличная книга. Все кто интересуется историей, в частости историей России-очень рекомендую. Я сам родом из Центральной Азии, многие вещи были откровением. Почему-то история России изучается со взглядом на запад, но на самом деле у России около половина границ с народами востока и юга. В общем, очень полезная книга.
Отличная книга. Все кто интересуется историей, в частости историей России-очень рекомендую. Я сам родом из Центральной Азии, многие вещи были откровением. Почему-то история России изучается со взглядом на запад, но на самом деле у России около половина границ с народами востока и юга. В общем, очень полезная книга.
November 2, 2017
This shows how Russia eventually conquered the steppe and the Caucasus by building lines of forts, using divide and conquer tactics both between nomadic tribes and within tribes. There were many ups and downs with different tsars placing different emphasis on conquering this area with eastward expansion. Russia was a European and Asian power simultaneously, each of which required different capabilities.
October 28, 2013
Russia was as much a colonial society as any other European power in the 16th through 19th centuries, with the important difference that Russia's colonial frontier was contiguous, rather than overseas. Khodarkovsky makes an important contribution to the historiography by making the steppe peoples that faced Russian expansion as much a part of the story as the Russians themselves.
January 20, 2023
"Russia's Steppe Frontier" is an excellent analysis of Russian expansion into the Eurasian steppe hampered only by its limited conceptual scope. In this rather detailed account, Khodarkovsky painstakingly recounts Russia's evolution from a minor player subservient to the dominant colonial empire. Khodorkovsky effectively highlights the irreconcilable differences between the Russian and Steppe political systems and how these made for fraught, ever-changing diplomacy as both systems sought to subsume the other. He compelling demonstrates how Russia initially through perceived necessity and later through ideology develops a brutally effective model to neutralize, subjugate, and eradicate the nomadic peoples which plagued its borderlands. He also provides a limited voice to the Steppe societies that found themselves in conflict with the Russians by drawing on their many diplomatic communications with other societies. Khodorkovsky ultimately offers a simple but compelling thesis rooted in the diplomatic communique of the era. Yet I find the text limited by its relatively narrow focus. Given his limited sources and the breadth of topic it is understandable that he is not able to examine the popular politics of either Russia or the Steppe in detail, even those these doubtless played a major role in the empire. Likewise one wishes for more economic data and sociological information given the importance placed by the offer on trade and demographics in the creation of the Russian colonial empire. Yet ultimately this does not change the fact that the book is an excellent and incredibly thorough account of how Russia comes to form its colonial empire, and how it manages to subjugate the neighbors which preyed upon it for generations. Given its academic nature and sometimes repetitive (by necessity) subject matter, I'd recommend this to those with an academic bent who already have a moderate knowledge of early modern Russia, and the peoples of the steppe; but who do not yet have much knowledge on the Russian colonial empire, or steppe politics.
May 2, 2022
Definitely learned a lot from this book, as an in-depth example of how power can shift over the course of history. There's a lot of insight on why the frontiers of agrarian and nomad societies are so contentious, and why it may be inevitable for one to dominant the other. At first I had a hard time following the text due to the many unfamiliar names of nomadic groups and their various social structures, and I needed to re-read some passages. It took a really long time to read threw, despite the moderate page count.
Overall I appreciated the detailed explanation, one-by-one, of diverse phenomena contributing to Russian expansion in this period. I always wanted to know why Russia is so big--now I feel I have at least a partial explanation to this (seemingly) basic question.
Overall I appreciated the detailed explanation, one-by-one, of diverse phenomena contributing to Russian expansion in this period. I always wanted to know why Russia is so big--now I feel I have at least a partial explanation to this (seemingly) basic question.
March 17, 2022
colonialism at your border
This was a great overview of “how the steppe was won”. The great expand east of Moscow with the black sea and the Caspian Se as southern borders is now much better introduced to me. The book provides the historic facts and and Google Maps a tab further provided the necessary geographic detail.
This was a great overview of “how the steppe was won”. The great expand east of Moscow with the black sea and the Caspian Se as southern borders is now much better introduced to me. The book provides the historic facts and and Google Maps a tab further provided the necessary geographic detail.
November 11, 2023
Świetna synteza kolonialnej polityki Moskwy, czyli dziel i rządź. Autor wybrał bardzo ciekawy okres na cel swoich badań, chciałoby się przeczytać monografię skupioną na poszczególnych grupach nomadów, jeszcze bardziej ich upodmiatawiającą.
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June 29, 2024why would you describe colonialism and how bad it was and then still go “welp, that was sort of inevitable and the only way for russia to do things in order to protect its own people”? i feel like im missing something
January 27, 2017
Sometime a bit dry to read, but still easy to read. Overal, a lots of information adequatly organized. Putin, what is he up too?
July 27, 2021
Not a good read
The book did not have enough maps for one who is unfamiliar with the region. Also. The history was not in chronological order. This made for a difficult read.
The book did not have enough maps for one who is unfamiliar with the region. Also. The history was not in chronological order. This made for a difficult read.
December 26, 2024
micheal although youre funny and very cool, you are my opp for LIFE
November 20, 2025
Russia’s Steppe Frontier is an eye-opening and deeply researched look into how the Russian Empire expanded into the steppe and reshaped the lives of the peoples who lived there. Khodarkovsky shows in clear detail how groups like the Chechens, Nogais, Tatars, and many others suddenly found themselves labeled “Russian” through conquest, administrative pressure, and imperial policy — not by choice.
Reading this, I couldn’t help but wish that people from these regions would revisit this history and see how little “prosperity” the empire actually brought. Instead of development, many communities experienced violence, dispossession, displacement, and a loss of autonomy. The book also highlights something striking: the empire was built not by a confident, thriving society, but by a population that had long been conditioned to serve authority — and then imposed that same system on others.
Khodarkovsky writes with balance and evidence, but the story itself is powerful and often tragic. This is essential reading for anyone interested in the Caucasus, the steppe, or the roots of imperial Russia’s policies. I highly recommend it.
Reading this, I couldn’t help but wish that people from these regions would revisit this history and see how little “prosperity” the empire actually brought. Instead of development, many communities experienced violence, dispossession, displacement, and a loss of autonomy. The book also highlights something striking: the empire was built not by a confident, thriving society, but by a population that had long been conditioned to serve authority — and then imposed that same system on others.
Khodarkovsky writes with balance and evidence, but the story itself is powerful and often tragic. This is essential reading for anyone interested in the Caucasus, the steppe, or the roots of imperial Russia’s policies. I highly recommend it.
Displaying 1 - 17 of 17 reviews