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I Tatti Studies in Italian Renaissance History
Milan Undone: Contested Sovereignties in the Italian Wars
A new history of how one of the Renaissance's preeminent cities lost its independence in the Italian Wars.
In 1499, the duchy of Milan had known independence for one hundred years. But the turn of the sixteenth century saw the city battered by the Italian Wars. As the major powers of Europe battled for supremacy, Milan, viewed by contemporaries as the "key to Italy," found itself wracked by a tug-of-war between French claimants and its ruling Sforza family. In just thirty years, the city endured nine changes of government before falling under three centuries of Habsburg dominion.
John Gagn� offers a new history of Milan's demise as a sovereign state. His focus is not on the successive wars themselves but on the social disruption that resulted. Amid the political whiplash, the structures of not only government but also daily life broke down. The very meanings of time, space, and dynasty--and their importance to political authority--were rewritten. While the feudal relationships that formed the basis of property rights and the rule of law were shattered, refugees spread across the region. Exiles plotted to claw back what they had lost.
Milan Undone is a rich and detailed story of harrowing events, but it is more than that. Gagn� asks us to rethink the political legacy of the Renaissance: the cradle of the modern nation-state was also the deathbed of one of its most sophisticated precursors. In its wake came a kind of reversion--not self-rule but chaos and empire.
In 1499, the duchy of Milan had known independence for one hundred years. But the turn of the sixteenth century saw the city battered by the Italian Wars. As the major powers of Europe battled for supremacy, Milan, viewed by contemporaries as the "key to Italy," found itself wracked by a tug-of-war between French claimants and its ruling Sforza family. In just thirty years, the city endured nine changes of government before falling under three centuries of Habsburg dominion.
John Gagn� offers a new history of Milan's demise as a sovereign state. His focus is not on the successive wars themselves but on the social disruption that resulted. Amid the political whiplash, the structures of not only government but also daily life broke down. The very meanings of time, space, and dynasty--and their importance to political authority--were rewritten. While the feudal relationships that formed the basis of property rights and the rule of law were shattered, refugees spread across the region. Exiles plotted to claw back what they had lost.
Milan Undone is a rich and detailed story of harrowing events, but it is more than that. Gagn� asks us to rethink the political legacy of the Renaissance: the cradle of the modern nation-state was also the deathbed of one of its most sophisticated precursors. In its wake came a kind of reversion--not self-rule but chaos and empire.
464 pages, Hardcover
Published January 1, 2021
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January 31, 2026
John Gagné Studies The Evolution Of Milan's Contested Sovereign State During The Italian Wars From 1494-1535.
John Gagné is currently the Senior Lecturer in History & the Director of the Medieval and Early Modern Centre at the University of Sydney, Australia, & in addition to this title, 2021's Milan Undone: Contested Sovereignties In The Italian Wars, he is also co-author of Shadow Agents Of Renaissance War, along with Stephen Bowd & Sarah Cockram. Gagné's study is part of the I Tatti Renaissance Studies collection of titles which examine a variety of fascinating topics related to the Italian Renaissance, among them Stephen D. Bowd's 2010 Venice's Most Loyal City: Civic Identity in Renaissance Brescia, Monica Azzolini's 2013 The Duke & the Stars: Astrology and Politics In Renaissance Milan, & Brian Brege's 2021 Tuscany in the Age of Empire.
John Gagné's lengthy study is 263 pages long, with an additional 170 pages of supplementary notes & a lengthy bibliography of printed & manuscript source material. His book is divided into 9 chapters which are themselves grouped into 3 parts: Politics, Property, & People.
In Chapter 1: The Temporality Of The State Gagné studies the ways in which the French monarchy & the Sforza regime would utilize historical traditions & genealogy affiliations to authenticate their respective dynastic claims. He presents several arguments utilizing different historiographical traditions that the French used in their efforts to legitimize their presence in the Duchy of Milan, such as this following passage that discusses book 5 of Titus Livius' Ab Urbe Condita, in addition to other historical sources such as Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum, Bonvesin de la Riva's 1288 De Magnalibus Mediolani, & Galvano Fiamma's 1337 Cronica Extravagans. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 28-32)
"The ancient historian related how, during the era of Rome's last monarch, Tarquinius Priscus, the kingdom of the Gauls abounded with people. Wishing to unburden the land, King Ambigatus encouraged his two nephews to colonize new territory: Segovesus led his tribe to the Hercynian Forest in Southern Germany, & Bellovesus forged the first road across the Alps to Italy. After routing Etruscans living near the River Ticino, Bellovesus founded a city in Insubria called Mediolanum. Through an ancient Gallic mass migration sealed with a military victory, Milan came into existence." (Gagné, 2021, pg. 28)
Both Louis XII d'Orleans & Ludovico Sforza's claims to Milanese sovereignty can be traced to their affiliation with a family whose reign predated both their factions' time in power during the Quattrocento & Cinquecento. The rule of the Visconti in Milan effectively began in 1277 with Ottone Visconti's expulsion from the city of the Guelf Della Torre faction, and became substantiated on 14 March 1330 with Azzone Visconti's acceptance as Milan's perpetual lord, finally becoming official with the Holy Roman Emperor Wencesclaus' investiture of Giangaleazzo Visconti as the first Duke of Milan in 1395-1396. (Gagné, 2021, pp.38-39)
Louis XII's Valois ties to the Visconti patrimony were predicated upon the French King Charles VI's younger brother Louis' marriage in 1389 to Valentina Visconti, Giangaleazzo's only daughter, while the Sforza claims were more recent & substantial, with Ludovico Sforza's mother Bianca Maria Visconti being the daughter of Fillipo Maria Visconti, the last of the Visconti dukes, & as such, Ludovico could claim direct affiliation as a Visconti blood relative. Gagné's book features a beautiful image of Tristano Calco's 1502 Genealogia Vicecomitum, a genealogic scroll depicting the Visconti lineage from the early bishops all the way up to King Louis XII's control of the city. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 38-39)
The study's numerous, high-quality photographs include ancient Milanese manuscripts, expansive wall murals, breathtaking architecture and even a picture on page 88 of Ludovico Sforza's prison cell at the French castle of Loches. Gagné does an outstanding job of explaining & integrating these photographs into his study's context as the narrative progresses, adding to its depth & character while he limns a riveting tale of Milanese intrigue and political drama during the Italian Wars' tempestuous period spanning from 1494-1535.
Another of Gagné's topics discussed in chapter 1 is the French crown's reliance on decrees such as the Edict of Vigevano to better align Milan's existing government with Louis XII's royal prerogatives. Passed on 11 November 1499, among the Edict of Vigevano's primary functions was to consolidate Milan's consiglio segreto and consiglio de justitia, respectively the secret council and council of justice, into a single governing body known simply as the senate, whose responsibilities were modeled after the French chancery. According to Gagné's analysis this was done to remove from power the previous régime's economic élites who had held positions of power and authority, the very same reason that during Ludovico Sforza's time in power he reduced the consiglio segreto from 60 to 8 & shortened the consiglio de justitia's roster to 5 in 1488. The Edict of Vigevano's noticeable favoritism towards men who were familiar with the French government's inner workings resulted in the Sforza administration no longer being able to effectively perform their duties and ultimately to their replacement with French candidates. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 46-48)
In Chapter 4: Land & Ownership, Gagné discusses how former Sforza vassals and retainers in Milan and Piedmont became embroiled in disputes over valuable holdings such as the fortress at Rocca di Baiedo, in Valsassina, in the wake of the new French sovereignty under Louis XII and François I. The fierce legal battle over Rocca di Baiedo persisted for years and involved influential men such as the wealthy Milanese aristocrat Simone Arrigoni, & Giangiacomo Trivulzio, the Italian Guelf marshal of French forces in Lombardy. Simone Arrigoni's desperation eventually led him to direct his efforts to neighboring Venice, which was powerful enough to shelter him from the French in the event he could enlist their aid. Gagné provides an excerpt from Arrigoni's appeal to the Serenissima that appraises his words' meaning before ending the sequence with a short synopsis on how this dramatic affair was at last resolved. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 115-121)
Chapter 5: Protecting & Suing includes an account of a dispute involving the city of Cremona that began when its castellan, Pietro Antonio Battaglia, reached an agreement with Venice to cede control of the city's fortress in exchange for a large sum of money and induction into the Venetian nobility. He was also offered an opulent house in Venice's Grand Canal in the San Samuele Contrada which added to Battaglia's difficulties due to the fact that the property's former owner was the powerful Sforza lieutenant, Roberto Sanseverino, and it had subsequently become contested by his relatives, Barbara Gonzaga Sanseverino & Ippolita Cibo Sanseverino. This is such an engaging study because of how effectively the author is able to establish connections between all of these events, which are in themselves difficult to follow at times, but Gagné narrates them very well. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 130-139)
This is but a small sampling of what the reader will enjoy in John Gagné's Milan Undone: Contested Sovereignties in the Italian Wars. The study's other chapters cover such topics as the oft-neglected reigns of Ludovico Sforza's sons Massimiliano Maria Sforza & Francesco II Sforza, who were supported by the Swiss Confederation & the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, respectively, as well as rich, detailed summaries of revenue disputes, primarily regarding a salt tax known as the gabelle, and an enthralling section which chronicles a 3-way document hunt involving Giangaleazzo Visconti's original 1395 ducal investiture and the famous Sforza chancellor Cicco Simonetta. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 150-155)
This exceptional study's every aspect has been polished to an unbelievably high level of quality, and John Gagné's ability to compose a compelling narrative around such a convoluted series of chaotic, disparate events truly speaks to his skills as a writer and historian. He is a craftsman at the very apex of his trade, & I believe that the reader will most likely feel very much the same way in the event he or she decides to give this outstanding study a try. Thank you so very much for reading, I hope that you enjoyed the review!
John Gagné is currently the Senior Lecturer in History & the Director of the Medieval and Early Modern Centre at the University of Sydney, Australia, & in addition to this title, 2021's Milan Undone: Contested Sovereignties In The Italian Wars, he is also co-author of Shadow Agents Of Renaissance War, along with Stephen Bowd & Sarah Cockram. Gagné's study is part of the I Tatti Renaissance Studies collection of titles which examine a variety of fascinating topics related to the Italian Renaissance, among them Stephen D. Bowd's 2010 Venice's Most Loyal City: Civic Identity in Renaissance Brescia, Monica Azzolini's 2013 The Duke & the Stars: Astrology and Politics In Renaissance Milan, & Brian Brege's 2021 Tuscany in the Age of Empire.
John Gagné's lengthy study is 263 pages long, with an additional 170 pages of supplementary notes & a lengthy bibliography of printed & manuscript source material. His book is divided into 9 chapters which are themselves grouped into 3 parts: Politics, Property, & People.
In Chapter 1: The Temporality Of The State Gagné studies the ways in which the French monarchy & the Sforza regime would utilize historical traditions & genealogy affiliations to authenticate their respective dynastic claims. He presents several arguments utilizing different historiographical traditions that the French used in their efforts to legitimize their presence in the Duchy of Milan, such as this following passage that discusses book 5 of Titus Livius' Ab Urbe Condita, in addition to other historical sources such as Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum, Bonvesin de la Riva's 1288 De Magnalibus Mediolani, & Galvano Fiamma's 1337 Cronica Extravagans. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 28-32)
"The ancient historian related how, during the era of Rome's last monarch, Tarquinius Priscus, the kingdom of the Gauls abounded with people. Wishing to unburden the land, King Ambigatus encouraged his two nephews to colonize new territory: Segovesus led his tribe to the Hercynian Forest in Southern Germany, & Bellovesus forged the first road across the Alps to Italy. After routing Etruscans living near the River Ticino, Bellovesus founded a city in Insubria called Mediolanum. Through an ancient Gallic mass migration sealed with a military victory, Milan came into existence." (Gagné, 2021, pg. 28)
Both Louis XII d'Orleans & Ludovico Sforza's claims to Milanese sovereignty can be traced to their affiliation with a family whose reign predated both their factions' time in power during the Quattrocento & Cinquecento. The rule of the Visconti in Milan effectively began in 1277 with Ottone Visconti's expulsion from the city of the Guelf Della Torre faction, and became substantiated on 14 March 1330 with Azzone Visconti's acceptance as Milan's perpetual lord, finally becoming official with the Holy Roman Emperor Wencesclaus' investiture of Giangaleazzo Visconti as the first Duke of Milan in 1395-1396. (Gagné, 2021, pp.38-39)
Louis XII's Valois ties to the Visconti patrimony were predicated upon the French King Charles VI's younger brother Louis' marriage in 1389 to Valentina Visconti, Giangaleazzo's only daughter, while the Sforza claims were more recent & substantial, with Ludovico Sforza's mother Bianca Maria Visconti being the daughter of Fillipo Maria Visconti, the last of the Visconti dukes, & as such, Ludovico could claim direct affiliation as a Visconti blood relative. Gagné's book features a beautiful image of Tristano Calco's 1502 Genealogia Vicecomitum, a genealogic scroll depicting the Visconti lineage from the early bishops all the way up to King Louis XII's control of the city. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 38-39)
The study's numerous, high-quality photographs include ancient Milanese manuscripts, expansive wall murals, breathtaking architecture and even a picture on page 88 of Ludovico Sforza's prison cell at the French castle of Loches. Gagné does an outstanding job of explaining & integrating these photographs into his study's context as the narrative progresses, adding to its depth & character while he limns a riveting tale of Milanese intrigue and political drama during the Italian Wars' tempestuous period spanning from 1494-1535.
Another of Gagné's topics discussed in chapter 1 is the French crown's reliance on decrees such as the Edict of Vigevano to better align Milan's existing government with Louis XII's royal prerogatives. Passed on 11 November 1499, among the Edict of Vigevano's primary functions was to consolidate Milan's consiglio segreto and consiglio de justitia, respectively the secret council and council of justice, into a single governing body known simply as the senate, whose responsibilities were modeled after the French chancery. According to Gagné's analysis this was done to remove from power the previous régime's economic élites who had held positions of power and authority, the very same reason that during Ludovico Sforza's time in power he reduced the consiglio segreto from 60 to 8 & shortened the consiglio de justitia's roster to 5 in 1488. The Edict of Vigevano's noticeable favoritism towards men who were familiar with the French government's inner workings resulted in the Sforza administration no longer being able to effectively perform their duties and ultimately to their replacement with French candidates. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 46-48)
In Chapter 4: Land & Ownership, Gagné discusses how former Sforza vassals and retainers in Milan and Piedmont became embroiled in disputes over valuable holdings such as the fortress at Rocca di Baiedo, in Valsassina, in the wake of the new French sovereignty under Louis XII and François I. The fierce legal battle over Rocca di Baiedo persisted for years and involved influential men such as the wealthy Milanese aristocrat Simone Arrigoni, & Giangiacomo Trivulzio, the Italian Guelf marshal of French forces in Lombardy. Simone Arrigoni's desperation eventually led him to direct his efforts to neighboring Venice, which was powerful enough to shelter him from the French in the event he could enlist their aid. Gagné provides an excerpt from Arrigoni's appeal to the Serenissima that appraises his words' meaning before ending the sequence with a short synopsis on how this dramatic affair was at last resolved. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 115-121)
Chapter 5: Protecting & Suing includes an account of a dispute involving the city of Cremona that began when its castellan, Pietro Antonio Battaglia, reached an agreement with Venice to cede control of the city's fortress in exchange for a large sum of money and induction into the Venetian nobility. He was also offered an opulent house in Venice's Grand Canal in the San Samuele Contrada which added to Battaglia's difficulties due to the fact that the property's former owner was the powerful Sforza lieutenant, Roberto Sanseverino, and it had subsequently become contested by his relatives, Barbara Gonzaga Sanseverino & Ippolita Cibo Sanseverino. This is such an engaging study because of how effectively the author is able to establish connections between all of these events, which are in themselves difficult to follow at times, but Gagné narrates them very well. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 130-139)
This is but a small sampling of what the reader will enjoy in John Gagné's Milan Undone: Contested Sovereignties in the Italian Wars. The study's other chapters cover such topics as the oft-neglected reigns of Ludovico Sforza's sons Massimiliano Maria Sforza & Francesco II Sforza, who were supported by the Swiss Confederation & the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, respectively, as well as rich, detailed summaries of revenue disputes, primarily regarding a salt tax known as the gabelle, and an enthralling section which chronicles a 3-way document hunt involving Giangaleazzo Visconti's original 1395 ducal investiture and the famous Sforza chancellor Cicco Simonetta. (Gagné, 2021, pp. 150-155)
This exceptional study's every aspect has been polished to an unbelievably high level of quality, and John Gagné's ability to compose a compelling narrative around such a convoluted series of chaotic, disparate events truly speaks to his skills as a writer and historian. He is a craftsman at the very apex of his trade, & I believe that the reader will most likely feel very much the same way in the event he or she decides to give this outstanding study a try. Thank you so very much for reading, I hope that you enjoyed the review!
October 3, 2024
Fantastic overview of the way that Milan was systematically "undone" by the conflicts and uncertainties of the late 1400s and early 1500s---a full half century of instability. The ways in which society crumbled as each regime tried to shore up their own claims by systematically undoing the work of the previous regime reveal much about how that society functioned and was upheld before. Most of the focus is of course on vaguely 1499-1530, understandably, but there is good information on what came before as well. Useful for me in my own research interests.
January 26, 2026
The Italian Wars, beginning in 1494, are largely forgotten, and perhaps for good reason: the kaleidoscope of alliances and city-states is baffling, even for readers somewhat familiar with Renaissance Italy. Popes act in the background, playing off imperial entrants to the peninsula; grand city-states like Venice and Florence jealously guard their territories and rarely combine against foreign invaders; and French and German armies lay waste to a once-rich and independent land. Despite its academic jargon, John Gagne offers a detailed and interesting portrait of Milan during these years of war, as its ruling elite shifted between Sforza, French, German, and other rulers; the only common thread is a declining level of wealth and quality of life for the inhabitants, sloshing ever again between regimes that rise and fall. For anyone interested in Milanese history, this is an excellent book on a turbulent period.
Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews