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Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism
Understanding of biblical poetry is enhanced by the study of its structure. In this book Adele Berlin analyzes parallelism, a major feature of Hebrew poetry, from a linguistic perspective. This new edition of Berlin's study features an additional chapter, "The Range of Biblical Metaphors in Smikhut ,"by late Russian linguist Lida Knorina. Berlin calls this addition "innovative and instructive to those who value the linguistic analysis of poetry." It is a fitting coda to Berlin's adept analysis.
- GenresBiblical StudiesTheology
224 pages, Paperback
First published September 22, 1992
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August 30, 2019
In The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, American biblical scholar Adele Berlin seeks to thoroughly analyze the form and function of parallelism in the Hebrew Scriptures and to better articulate its relationship to Hebrew poetry. For over thirty years, Berlin has written and taught extensively on Jewish and Hebrew studies at the University of Maryland. Her efforts have earned her the accolades and fellowships of several biblical societies and academic institutions, including the Israeli Ministry of Education, the Society of Biblical Literature and the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation. In Dynamics, she demonstrates her deep acquaintance with Biblical Hebrew as well as her careful, exhaustive approach toward its study. In doing so, she provides her readers with an immensely helpful tool when encountering Hebrew parallelism in all its varieties.
The book begins by summarizing the historical attempts to define Hebrew parallelism. In the late 18th century, Robert Lowth famously defined parallelism as the principal feature of Hebrew Poetry, in which there is a generally semantic “correspondence of one verse, or line, with another.” (1) Though others have adapted these theories over time, Berlin argues that each has favored simplicity over accuracy, resulting in theories which don’t account for the myriad of linguistic permutations of parallelism that can be observed, be they by nature grammatical, lexical, semantic, phonological, or any combination thereof. Thus, Berlin sets out to demonstrate that parallelism is more than just semantic. Indeed, “a morphologic parallelism is just as parallel as a semantic one, although it is of a different nature.” (52) Furthermore, she aims to distinguish parallelism as a complex phenomenon distinct from poetry, and in doing so seeks not to expound upon the hermeneutics of parallelism, but rather to “present an overarching, integrated, and linguistically based description of [it].” (29)
To properly evaluate an incidence of parallelism, Berlin asserts that one must first examine it according to level and aspect. The aspect is the linguistic category to which the incidence may be ascribed, of which she gives three: grammatical, lexical-semantic, and phonological. The level refers then to the point at which the parallelism is apparent, the two options being at the word or at the line (clause). Consequently, for each of the three aspects there are two observable types, or levels.
First, parallelisms of the grammatical aspect may be observed at the level of the word, in which equivalences or contrasts are observed in morphology, or they may be observed at the level of the line, where the parallelism is observable in the syntax of the clause. Berlin generally describes the word level as part of the surface structure of parallelism. This is in part because the occurrence may be more perceptible to a reader since it involves congruities in the forms (morphemes) of words or phrases. In contrast, grammatical parallelisms at the line level may not be as easily perceptible since they occur in the syntactical or “deep” structure of a sentence. In other words, to properly understand a parallelism of syntax, one must diagram the components (subject, verb, object, etc.) of any supposedly associated sentences to see if there exists any equivalence or contrast between them.
Second, the lexical-semantic aspect can also be subdivided into word (lexical) and line (semantic) relationships. Again, the lexical level is generally more perceptible to the reader due to the employment of familiar word pairings. These pairings may be equivalent or contrastive in nature, and really “are nothing more or less than the products of normal word associations that are made by all competent speakers.” (67) However, it is important to note that parallelism activates word pairs, not the other way around. (79) The mere presence of word pairs does not imply a semantic relationship in the deep structure, or meaning, of any two parallel lines. Rather, a parallelism may serve as a cue to the reader that a semantic relationship is present, and it is therefore the task of the reader to carefully determine in each case if such a correspondence exists.
Third, the phonological aspect consists of simple sound pairs at the surface level, and linear phonological equivalence in the deep structure. Here Berlin’s audience must trust that the various examples she presents may constitute phonological relationships, especially considering that the Masoretic vowel markings are excluded. Generally speaking, however, these relationships may be analogous to rhyme in English, where words with similar sounds serve to unite lines of a poem. The actual method and meter employed are quite different in Hebrew, and true phonological equivalence in the deep structure is quite rare. (121) Nevertheless, the purpose of sound pairings is similar to those of the aforementioned aspects, in that they “enhance the perception of correspondence between the lines.” (111)
What makes Hebrew parallelism so complex, and perhaps equally as beautiful, are the ways in which parallel aspects can be combined to induce varied effects upon the reader. Indeed, like the petite pools of color in a painter’s palette, each may be combined in an infinite number of ways to produce varying poetic effects. One such charming example is that of paranomasia, in which a parallel in phonology unites words which are dissimilar in sense, thus creating a unique, contrastive highlight. While the meaning of such blends remains the object of hermeneutics, an undeniable effect is that of enhanced textual memorability.
Although Hebrew parallelism is remarkably varied in form and function, Berlin contends that understanding it is necessary for the hermeneutical process. She compares it to a set of binoculars which, “like human vision…superimposes two slightly different views of the same object and from their convergence…produces a sense of depth.” (99) Such a metaphor may prove inspiring for the Hebrew aficionado struggling in how to associate textual features with spiritual truths. The ultimate goal for any reader, however, is to understand the text. With poetry, such a feat may prove more difficult than other more prosaic literary genres due to its idiosyncratic usage of everyday speech. “Poets, after all, use the same language and the same linguistic rules as their audience, but it is the way in which they use these that makes them poets.” (80) If great English poets like Shakespeare were able to use language to such dramatic effect, certainly also were the magnificent kings and prophets who transcribed the very poetry of God for His eternal glory and our unending glee.
The book begins by summarizing the historical attempts to define Hebrew parallelism. In the late 18th century, Robert Lowth famously defined parallelism as the principal feature of Hebrew Poetry, in which there is a generally semantic “correspondence of one verse, or line, with another.” (1) Though others have adapted these theories over time, Berlin argues that each has favored simplicity over accuracy, resulting in theories which don’t account for the myriad of linguistic permutations of parallelism that can be observed, be they by nature grammatical, lexical, semantic, phonological, or any combination thereof. Thus, Berlin sets out to demonstrate that parallelism is more than just semantic. Indeed, “a morphologic parallelism is just as parallel as a semantic one, although it is of a different nature.” (52) Furthermore, she aims to distinguish parallelism as a complex phenomenon distinct from poetry, and in doing so seeks not to expound upon the hermeneutics of parallelism, but rather to “present an overarching, integrated, and linguistically based description of [it].” (29)
To properly evaluate an incidence of parallelism, Berlin asserts that one must first examine it according to level and aspect. The aspect is the linguistic category to which the incidence may be ascribed, of which she gives three: grammatical, lexical-semantic, and phonological. The level refers then to the point at which the parallelism is apparent, the two options being at the word or at the line (clause). Consequently, for each of the three aspects there are two observable types, or levels.
First, parallelisms of the grammatical aspect may be observed at the level of the word, in which equivalences or contrasts are observed in morphology, or they may be observed at the level of the line, where the parallelism is observable in the syntax of the clause. Berlin generally describes the word level as part of the surface structure of parallelism. This is in part because the occurrence may be more perceptible to a reader since it involves congruities in the forms (morphemes) of words or phrases. In contrast, grammatical parallelisms at the line level may not be as easily perceptible since they occur in the syntactical or “deep” structure of a sentence. In other words, to properly understand a parallelism of syntax, one must diagram the components (subject, verb, object, etc.) of any supposedly associated sentences to see if there exists any equivalence or contrast between them.
Second, the lexical-semantic aspect can also be subdivided into word (lexical) and line (semantic) relationships. Again, the lexical level is generally more perceptible to the reader due to the employment of familiar word pairings. These pairings may be equivalent or contrastive in nature, and really “are nothing more or less than the products of normal word associations that are made by all competent speakers.” (67) However, it is important to note that parallelism activates word pairs, not the other way around. (79) The mere presence of word pairs does not imply a semantic relationship in the deep structure, or meaning, of any two parallel lines. Rather, a parallelism may serve as a cue to the reader that a semantic relationship is present, and it is therefore the task of the reader to carefully determine in each case if such a correspondence exists.
Third, the phonological aspect consists of simple sound pairs at the surface level, and linear phonological equivalence in the deep structure. Here Berlin’s audience must trust that the various examples she presents may constitute phonological relationships, especially considering that the Masoretic vowel markings are excluded. Generally speaking, however, these relationships may be analogous to rhyme in English, where words with similar sounds serve to unite lines of a poem. The actual method and meter employed are quite different in Hebrew, and true phonological equivalence in the deep structure is quite rare. (121) Nevertheless, the purpose of sound pairings is similar to those of the aforementioned aspects, in that they “enhance the perception of correspondence between the lines.” (111)
What makes Hebrew parallelism so complex, and perhaps equally as beautiful, are the ways in which parallel aspects can be combined to induce varied effects upon the reader. Indeed, like the petite pools of color in a painter’s palette, each may be combined in an infinite number of ways to produce varying poetic effects. One such charming example is that of paranomasia, in which a parallel in phonology unites words which are dissimilar in sense, thus creating a unique, contrastive highlight. While the meaning of such blends remains the object of hermeneutics, an undeniable effect is that of enhanced textual memorability.
Although Hebrew parallelism is remarkably varied in form and function, Berlin contends that understanding it is necessary for the hermeneutical process. She compares it to a set of binoculars which, “like human vision…superimposes two slightly different views of the same object and from their convergence…produces a sense of depth.” (99) Such a metaphor may prove inspiring for the Hebrew aficionado struggling in how to associate textual features with spiritual truths. The ultimate goal for any reader, however, is to understand the text. With poetry, such a feat may prove more difficult than other more prosaic literary genres due to its idiosyncratic usage of everyday speech. “Poets, after all, use the same language and the same linguistic rules as their audience, but it is the way in which they use these that makes them poets.” (80) If great English poets like Shakespeare were able to use language to such dramatic effect, certainly also were the magnificent kings and prophets who transcribed the very poetry of God for His eternal glory and our unending glee.
January 26, 2026
Berlin uses linguistics to analyze how parallelism functions in biblical literature. She finds that parallelism can be found in several aspects or levels of a text (grammatical, semantic, etc.). Her focus is more on describing and categorizing the ways in which parallelism appears than on identifying the rules behind parallelism.
This work is helpful and thorough, and it gave me a much greater appreciation for the nuances of biblical parallelism. It is a bit dry, believe it or not. Thankfully, it’s not too long, and Berlin does a good job of giving just enough examples to make her point without going overboard.
This work is helpful and thorough, and it gave me a much greater appreciation for the nuances of biblical parallelism. It is a bit dry, believe it or not. Thankfully, it’s not too long, and Berlin does a good job of giving just enough examples to make her point without going overboard.
January 19, 2024
Game changer. This has affected my perception of biblical poetry to the same degree that Alter's Art of Biblical Poetry did a few years back. The inclusion of a Russian linguist's essay on metaphorical uses of the construct state was sweet, but didn't add much to the book as a whole -- it was also unfortunately difficult to read.
May 10, 2012
A great idea supplied with plenty of examples.Very fun to read and very practical. I love it.
June 28, 2017
Excellent introduction to a key feature of biblical Hebrew poetry.
March 31, 2021
Maximum effort required at information extraction.
Reviewed in the United States on November 3, 2020
**********
This book is some trash, and if I ever find the author in a dark alley... I cannot be held responsible for my actions.
The signal to noise ratio here is almost a perfect zero. (And there may be actual information here, it's just that I got so tired of fishing for it.)
The reason that I sought out this book is because in another book that I was reading about chanting the Torah (Joshua Jacobson, "Chanting the Hebrew Bible"), the author introduced four different types of parallelism:
Parallel actions;
Corresponding parallelism;
Analogous parallelism;
Elliptical parallelism.
But, other sources have introduced three types of parallelism:
Synthetic parallelism;
Antithetic parallelism;
Synonymous parallelism.
The first step to being able to understand the structure of the cantillation is to be able to divide (certain) sentences into hemistichs--and that requires some type of understanding of parallelism.
If you are looking for that type of information, you will not find it in this book--NOR you find any number of simple, clear, well-chosen textbook-like examples to illustrate a principle.
My goal was to solve several problems:
1. To see whether or not these were two different types of systems or different ways to describe the same system;
OR
2. To see whether or not there were multiple different and independent systems for describing biblical parallelism
None of that information was present in this book.
1. A large number of academics write papers about topics that are so esoteric that there are not more than two people in the universe who actually *care* about said topic.
But, people cite those sources in order to keep the topic alive and that seems to be the entire function of this book. (It's not hard to believe that if you don't cite other people's articles, then they won't cite yours.)
And if the reader isn't clear about that social courtesy after laboring through this book, then by the time he made it to the end he would know for certain.
For example: There is a 17-page article by a Lida Knorina, in which she goes on about "the range of biblical metaphors in smichut"--and in which there is a lot of babbling about three models: Property-thing/ Thing-property/ Function-argument.
As if we have never heard of submitting something to a journal and getting it peer-reviewed and then published.
2. People who are linguists have a prodigious talent for using the maximum number of words to bring across the minimum amount of information. And this book was no exception to the rule. (For examples of this, you could cite: Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky, and John McWhorter. The repetition was not an accident, it's just that Chomsky uses so many words that he could occupy two places on a list of verbose authors.)
*******
Berlin did mention that she wanted a framework to study parallelism under different linguistic categories morphologic, syntactic, lexical, semantic, and phonological.
And, that created a couple of problems:
1. It took me far afield of what I'm interested in with respect to Kriat HaTorah
2. It made it too troublesome to fish for the information that is necessary to parse sentences.
Verdict: Not recommended.
If you want to learn to parse sentences in Biblical Hebrew, it is probably less work to sort through a thousand rabbis until you can find just that one with whom you could work through the Jacobson book.
Reviewed in the United States on November 3, 2020
**********
This book is some trash, and if I ever find the author in a dark alley... I cannot be held responsible for my actions.
The signal to noise ratio here is almost a perfect zero. (And there may be actual information here, it's just that I got so tired of fishing for it.)
The reason that I sought out this book is because in another book that I was reading about chanting the Torah (Joshua Jacobson, "Chanting the Hebrew Bible"), the author introduced four different types of parallelism:
Parallel actions;
Corresponding parallelism;
Analogous parallelism;
Elliptical parallelism.
But, other sources have introduced three types of parallelism:
Synthetic parallelism;
Antithetic parallelism;
Synonymous parallelism.
The first step to being able to understand the structure of the cantillation is to be able to divide (certain) sentences into hemistichs--and that requires some type of understanding of parallelism.
If you are looking for that type of information, you will not find it in this book--NOR you find any number of simple, clear, well-chosen textbook-like examples to illustrate a principle.
My goal was to solve several problems:
1. To see whether or not these were two different types of systems or different ways to describe the same system;
OR
2. To see whether or not there were multiple different and independent systems for describing biblical parallelism
None of that information was present in this book.
1. A large number of academics write papers about topics that are so esoteric that there are not more than two people in the universe who actually *care* about said topic.
But, people cite those sources in order to keep the topic alive and that seems to be the entire function of this book. (It's not hard to believe that if you don't cite other people's articles, then they won't cite yours.)
And if the reader isn't clear about that social courtesy after laboring through this book, then by the time he made it to the end he would know for certain.
For example: There is a 17-page article by a Lida Knorina, in which she goes on about "the range of biblical metaphors in smichut"--and in which there is a lot of babbling about three models: Property-thing/ Thing-property/ Function-argument.
As if we have never heard of submitting something to a journal and getting it peer-reviewed and then published.
2. People who are linguists have a prodigious talent for using the maximum number of words to bring across the minimum amount of information. And this book was no exception to the rule. (For examples of this, you could cite: Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky, and John McWhorter. The repetition was not an accident, it's just that Chomsky uses so many words that he could occupy two places on a list of verbose authors.)
*******
Berlin did mention that she wanted a framework to study parallelism under different linguistic categories morphologic, syntactic, lexical, semantic, and phonological.
And, that created a couple of problems:
1. It took me far afield of what I'm interested in with respect to Kriat HaTorah
2. It made it too troublesome to fish for the information that is necessary to parse sentences.
Verdict: Not recommended.
If you want to learn to parse sentences in Biblical Hebrew, it is probably less work to sort through a thousand rabbis until you can find just that one with whom you could work through the Jacobson book.
October 9, 2024
Berlin is often leaving the ends of her chapters with inspiration for more research. She’s quick to confess the limited scope she’s covering, and that she has not come even close to exhaustion of her topics. Her writing is a unique balance of technicality and applicability for study and better Bible-reading, like when she compares parallelism to human vision which “superimposes two slightly different views of the same object and from their convergence it produces a sense of depth" (99). The value of Berlin’s work is that it is a deep, narrow, and yet applicable work for seminary students and experienced Bible-readers alike.
Read for an in-depth, technical, yet shorter introduction to Biblical Parallelism. You'll end up agreeing with Berlin – finding parallelism in the Bible is fun.
Read for an in-depth, technical, yet shorter introduction to Biblical Parallelism. You'll end up agreeing with Berlin – finding parallelism in the Bible is fun.
July 28, 2017
Enjoyed this book. In it, Berlin argues that there are several linguistic features that indicate parallelism (grammatical, semantic, phonological, etc.) in Hebrew prose and poetry. It is important to note that Berlin does not limit her study to poetry alone, even though parallelism is a distinctive function of poetry. Parallelism also exists in prose.
Berlin argues that all these linguistic features work together in parallelism to deepen the message that these few lines have. They work together to emphasize that message.
Berlin argues that all these linguistic features work together in parallelism to deepen the message that these few lines have. They work together to emphasize that message.
January 15, 2018
Read if for a class. Meh.
May 14, 2018
It was good, although quite dull at times. Clearly this is a work to be taken seriously for those more than dabbling in Hebrew poetry and parallelism.
November 2, 2018
Essential reading for anyone who wants a detailed understanding of Biblical prosody.
July 18, 2022
This incredibly boring book does a good job of teaching biblical parallelism. Lots of examples, clear explanations.
March 6, 2025
pretty sure the fact that i actually enjoyed this means i’m a certified linguistics nerd. and honestly i’m okay with that.
March 28, 2024
In The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, Adele Berlin desires to contribute to the “growth of interest in literary aspects of the Hebrew Bible” by developing a detailed study on the rules, functions, and examples of Hebrew poetry (xv). Rather than putting forward a thesis on the nature or particularities of biblical parallelism, Berlin provides a clear and straightforward argument for the purpose of her book and the learning outcome for the inquiring Hebrew student: “The purpose of this book, then, is not to espouse or substantiate a particular linguistic theory or methodology, but to use linguistics, in its broadest sense, to explain parallelism as it occurs in the Hebrew Bible. I have attempted to get at the basics of what biblical parallelism is and how it works” (xiii). Berlin’s work is not an introduction to linguistics, nor is the book an introduction to the Hebrew language, but her writing is a cross-disciplinary work to explain the nature and function of parallelism in Hebrew poetry. Readers who have not studied adequately the discipline of linguistics may find Berlin’s writing to be inaccessible or highly technical at times. Nevertheless, the driving force behind Berlin’s work in linguistics and biblical parallelism is the enjoyment of the task (pp. xi, xvii)
In the introduction and chapters 1–2 of Berlin’s book, the author lays the foundation of her study as she sketches the history of the study of biblical parallelism and critically evaluates the methodology and work of scholars who contributed to the discipline. Berlin also devotes much space to a holistic and well-informed definition of biblical parallelism as she synthesizes the insights of linguistic and biblical scholars: “Parallelism is a linguistic phenomenon…It is therefore fitting that we should approach it from a linguistic perspective, as well as from the perspective of biblical studies” (2). Chapter two, then, takes up “The Linguistic Study of Biblical Parallelism” (18), and Berlin reiterates the goal of her book: “the goal of this book is to present an overarching, integrated, and linguistically based description of biblical parallelism” (29). Berlin accomplishes her goal as she provides complex linguistic explanations and analyses for the innerworkings of Hebrew poetic parallelism.
Berlin delves deeper into linguistic study of biblical parallelism in chapters 3–5. Specifically, chapter three focuses on “The Grammatical Aspect [of biblical parallelism], chapter four on ‘The Lexical and Semantic Aspects,’ and [chapter five on] “’The Phonological Aspect.”’ Berlin appeals to biblical texts that showcase each of these aspects of biblical parallelism. Berlin gives her reasoning for breaking down a study of biblical parallelism according to these linguistic components: “But linguistics, it must be remembered, is more than grammar; and parallelism is more than grammar, too. Linguistics includes phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, and all of these play a role in parallelism” (26). Therefore, a proper study of this topic must give great attention to each aspect and its usage in the text (see p. 28).
Following the linguistic-biblical approach and structure of her book, Berlin moves on to discuss biblical examples and uses of parallelism in chapter six. Berlin concludes her book with a reflection on parallelism’s role in one’s biblical hermeneutics and exegesis. Having accomplished the goal of her book, Berlin then states the purpose of the book: “The purpose of this book has not been to reduce parallelism to a simple linguistic formula, but rather to show the enormous linguistic complexity of parallelism” (129). Berlin recognizes the limits of studying and comprehensively grasping Hebrew parallelism, and she acknowledges parallelism’s like of independent meaning and significance: “Let me make clear at once that parallelism in itself does not have meaning” (135). This final acknowledgement is greatly important for Berlin as she does not want to overstate the significance or role of parallelism considering her trailblazing research on the concept. Hebrew students who desire a historically informed and biblically considerate approach to Hebrew parallelism will be satisfied by Berlin’s book.
In the introduction and chapters 1–2 of Berlin’s book, the author lays the foundation of her study as she sketches the history of the study of biblical parallelism and critically evaluates the methodology and work of scholars who contributed to the discipline. Berlin also devotes much space to a holistic and well-informed definition of biblical parallelism as she synthesizes the insights of linguistic and biblical scholars: “Parallelism is a linguistic phenomenon…It is therefore fitting that we should approach it from a linguistic perspective, as well as from the perspective of biblical studies” (2). Chapter two, then, takes up “The Linguistic Study of Biblical Parallelism” (18), and Berlin reiterates the goal of her book: “the goal of this book is to present an overarching, integrated, and linguistically based description of biblical parallelism” (29). Berlin accomplishes her goal as she provides complex linguistic explanations and analyses for the innerworkings of Hebrew poetic parallelism.
Berlin delves deeper into linguistic study of biblical parallelism in chapters 3–5. Specifically, chapter three focuses on “The Grammatical Aspect [of biblical parallelism], chapter four on ‘The Lexical and Semantic Aspects,’ and [chapter five on] “’The Phonological Aspect.”’ Berlin appeals to biblical texts that showcase each of these aspects of biblical parallelism. Berlin gives her reasoning for breaking down a study of biblical parallelism according to these linguistic components: “But linguistics, it must be remembered, is more than grammar; and parallelism is more than grammar, too. Linguistics includes phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, and all of these play a role in parallelism” (26). Therefore, a proper study of this topic must give great attention to each aspect and its usage in the text (see p. 28).
Following the linguistic-biblical approach and structure of her book, Berlin moves on to discuss biblical examples and uses of parallelism in chapter six. Berlin concludes her book with a reflection on parallelism’s role in one’s biblical hermeneutics and exegesis. Having accomplished the goal of her book, Berlin then states the purpose of the book: “The purpose of this book has not been to reduce parallelism to a simple linguistic formula, but rather to show the enormous linguistic complexity of parallelism” (129). Berlin recognizes the limits of studying and comprehensively grasping Hebrew parallelism, and she acknowledges parallelism’s like of independent meaning and significance: “Let me make clear at once that parallelism in itself does not have meaning” (135). This final acknowledgement is greatly important for Berlin as she does not want to overstate the significance or role of parallelism considering her trailblazing research on the concept. Hebrew students who desire a historically informed and biblically considerate approach to Hebrew parallelism will be satisfied by Berlin’s book.
March 13, 2016
An excellent book on Hebrew poetry for understanding the enigmas for the syntax of Hebrew poetry, there is a lot of good information in this book despite its brevity, a useful reference for every pastor and anyone who knows Hebrew and is interested in studying OT poetry.
March 11, 2016
Excellent addition to the literature on the subject.
January 26, 2017
Simply excellent. A very helpful volume to understand this central aspect of Hebrew Poetry
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November 1, 2018Great book on linguistic aspects of parallelism. It requires some knowledge of Hebrew and interest in Hebrew poetry.
Having said that, she does not do a good job interacting with other major works on poetry.
Having said that, she does not do a good job interacting with other major works on poetry.
Displaying 1 - 18 of 18 reviews