The Lion and The Lily: The Rise and Fall of Awadh

by Ira Mukhoty

Through the turbulent eighteenth century, Awadh grew to become one of the richest and most coveted regions in all of Hindustan. Although it was nominally ruled by the Mughal emperor in Delhi, the Mughal empire itself under Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeeley’, and later under Shah Alam II, was in terminal decline. The British and French East India Companies were vying for control of the subcontinent. As the Seve Years’ War between these European powers came to an end, and the British lost territory in other parts of the world, they became more determined to seize power in India. Meanwhile, France began a ‘war of revenge’ against its old enemy to restore its prestige. The French Revolutionary wars (1792–99) and the Napoleonic wars (1803–1815) would lead to even greater volatility in India. French players continued to intrigue till the last quarter of the eighteenth century in various Indian courts. Awadh’s rise to prominence began when Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (r.1722–1739) was posted there by the Mughal emperor as a emotion for failing to quell a Jat rebellion. Undeterred, Saadat Khan and his successors worked relentlessly to bring stability and glory to the province. Shuja-ud-Daula (r.1754–1775), the third nawab, was widely considered the most powerful and courageous ruler of the time. But after the disastrous loss of the Mughal army at the Battle of Buxar (1764) Shuja was forced into an unsavoury alliance with the British. Despite this unfortunate development, Shuja worked hard to develop Awadh, and Faizabad in particular. Shuja’s son, Asaf-ud-Daula (r.1775–1797), was a visionary and an exemplary diplomat, and his mother, Bahu Begum, a formidable force of nature. Asaf created a Shia renaissance that was a challenge to both Mughal Sunni power and the increasing parochialism of the EIC. His adopted son, Wazir Ali (r.1797–1798), was deposed by the British who then crowned his uncle Saadat Ali Khan (r.1798–1814) as a puppet ruler. In the treaty of 1801, Saadat Ali Khan ceded half of Awadh to the British East India Company and agreed to disband his troops in favour of an expensive British-run army. These and other developments would reduce Awadh to a shadow of its former glory within a couple of decades.+
Using Persian, English, and hitherto untranslated French sources as well as recent work by art historians, bestselling author Ira Mukhoty brings to focus the life and times of Awadh in the eighteenth century as well as some of the most important figures of the period—the nawabs, EIC officials such as Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Richard Wellesley, as also the powerful begums, elite eunuchs, soldiers and adventurers, such as René Madec, Jean Baptiste Gentil, Claude Martin, Antoine Polier, artists both Indian and European, and others. The Lion and the Lily is a nuanced, detailed, and richly told account of the rise and fall of Awadh in the eighteenth century against the background of the international struggle between Britain and France.

Genres: History, India, Asia

Kindle Edition

Published July 5, 2024

Reviews

[Kartik Chauhan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Incredibly rich in detail, from political overtures to art history, as well as a dive into the textiles, food, literature and beguiling legends of the people behind the enchanting kingdom and culture of Awadh, this is a fascinating book that will outlast contemporary as well as colonial attempts at erasing histories. Highly recommended!

[Deotima Sarkar · Rating 4 out of 5]

Munching on that scrumptious Awadhi Biriyani are you? To be very honest I love the Awadh Biriyani and having given up on history after standard 10, this book really intrigued me!
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Ira Mukhoty's The Lion and the Lily, gives a deep insight into eighteenth-century Awadh: a period when it rose to be great and then saw its final decline. This is definitely not general history but a colorful description of the interplay of powers, cultural growth, and important personalities against high political volatility.
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Mukhoty has woven together the fancy and multilayered tapestry of Awadh's transformation by using a wide array of sources, including Persian, English, and untranslated French. The narrative is not merely the recreation of well-known events but throws fresh light upon the life of figures such as Saadat Khan, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Asaf-ud-Daula. The author, through her work, goes on to describe in a very critical manner the forced alliance of Shuja-ud-Daula with the British after the Battle of Buxar, elaborating that this particular incident laid the foundations for Awadh's troubled relations with its colonial masters.
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What really sets this book apart is the way it incorporates historical photographs that are not only eye-catching but also form an important part of the narration. Along with incisive analysis, these photographs enabled me to visualize the architectural magnificence, the cultural richness, and the political intrigue of those times. The book is painstakingly researched; the references themselves are a testimony to how vast and sound author's scholarship is and the dedication with which she has attempted to bring this age alive.
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The Lion and the Lily is an account in near-photographic detail, more than a skin-deep history of the play of forces involved that shaped Awadh into what it was, way superior to the average Indian history that is normally read and although it's a big book, I would say it's definitely worth a read for its story like approach interspersed with true history.
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[Rahul Vishnoi · Rating 5 out of 5]

-A Song Snipped from History-
Review of 'The Lion and the Lily'

The Lion and the Lily is a correction of history. It seeks to redeem the nawabs wronged and begums maligned by the malicious British Historians. It tells the story of Awadh and on this journey, we also get a few stops to appreciate how Tipu Sultan was made out to be a villainous character and how pitiable Mughal rulers had become towards the end of the glorious Mughal era.

The book glows when it puts focus on where it promises on the cover- Awadh. The forgotten stories of Shuja, Asaf, Bahut Begum, Nawab Begum and their khwajsaras (eunuchs in the female section of the fort) are incredibly interesting and after every 20 pages or so, you read something that directly tugs upon your jaw, bringing it down the the hardback nestled in your lap. Mukhoty writes- "In the cities of Faizabad and then Lucknow, Shuja, Asaf, Bahu Begum, Nawab Begum, their eunuchs, and their elite entourage created a visible and extravagant culture of Shia remembrance to rival any in the world at the time."

The book has various important and interesting tidbits like how the construction of Imambada was a means to support the impoverished class. Whatever the construction was accomplished in the morning would be broken down at night so that poor could keep on getting labour charges for the work. The friction between French and British is a crucial takeaway too. I loved how fiesty and fiery begums were, supporting their husband and then their son through the British debauchery. Clash of Bahu Begun with Warren Hastings is immensely readable.

The plunder of Seringapatam makes one seethe with anger. Read on- "In the evening, Tipu Sultan's body was discovered near the Water Gate of the fort, lying under 'a vast heap of the slain' The sultan's body was identified by Baird and even in death Tipu appeared so charged with life force that his enemies struggled to believe he was indeed dead. His body was still warm, they later claimed, and his large and luminous eyes were open. He had been bayoneted thrice, and killed by a shot to the head."

Mukhoty writes about her characters as a mother would. Her affection shows through in her careful handling and single-minded devotion of resisting the maligning of Shuja and Bahu Begum. A befitting tribute to Awadh, its nawabs and begums.

[Sajith Kumar · Rating 2 out of 5]

The greatest contribution of Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, to India’s well-being was that he initiated the disintegration of the Mughal empire. Even though it managed to totter on for another 150 years after his death, its vitality was snuffed out and it served only as a punch bag for every adventurer. Close came the invasion and plunder of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Durrani. These incidents devastated Delhi and impoverished the emperor. The regional Mughal governors in Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh exploited this opportunity to the hilt and set up hereditary dynasties in these provinces. The English East India Company (EIC) was the other contender who utilized the chance to establish territorial power. The eighteenth century saw a series of wars around the globe between the colonial aspirations of Britain and France. The former lost a part of its colonial empire in American independence while France succumbed in all theatres of encounter. This sealed the fate of the French in India. Many French soldiers quickly changed sides and sold their military skill and services to native states who could remunerate them handsomely. The Nawab of Awadh was a patron of these European mercenaries. This book brings to centre stage the lives of the nawabs, begums, eunuchs and other lesser known players, in addition to the perspective provided by the involvement of certain French adventurers and soldiers. The ‘lion’ in the title refers to the Awadhi nawabs and ‘lily’ refers to the French royal banner fleur-de-lys (the lily flower) which was part of the French king’s heraldry. Two of Ira Mukhoty’s earlier books – Akbar: The Greal Mughal (read review here) and Heroines: Powerful Indian Women of Myth and History (read review here) – were reviewed here earlier.

The origins of the Awadhi nawabi is full of deception and treachery, but the author lets it pass without comment. However, she does not extend this courtesy to the Marathas or the British. Saadat Khan, who established the Awadhi line, was a cheat on the personal level and a traitor against the Mughal empire. The Mughals had successfully persuaded the Persian invader Nadir Shah to accept a measly war indemnity and return home. But Saadat Khan informed Shah of the vast treasures of emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela and where it was hidden. Nadir Shah blew into Delhi like a tempest and killed almost 100,000 people till the city drains literally overflowed with blood of the slain. However, after appropriating the treasure, he humiliated Saadat Khan who immediately committed suicide by taking poison. The first Awadh Nawab was thus instrumental in helping Nadir Shah annihilate the very fabric of Mughal imperial authority. Saadat’s son-in-law Safdar Jung succeeded him on the throne. He paid Nadir two crore rupees to confirm his nawabi of Awadh. The helpless Mughal emperor had no other option than to accede to the invader’s command as a fait accompli. The funny part of the episode was that the name of the new nawab meant ‘Lion in war’! The next nawab, Shuja-ud-Daula, sided with the Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Durrani in his battle at Panipat against the Marathas. Such was the antecedents of the scions of Awadh and the author wants us to sympathise with them over their eventual loss of the kingdom to the British.

The book explains how the EIC consolidated their hold on power in north India by cashing in on the wrong policy decisions of the Mughals and their Awadhi vassals. Mughal emperor Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daula lost the battle of Buxar to the British in 1764 who swiftly took possession of Allahabad and then Lucknow, the capital. Shuja would pay a crippling indemnity to the British to get the regions back. On his part, Shah Alam would sign away the right to collect taxes (diwani) of the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the Company. This was the single incident that spawned British colonial empire in India. England no longer needed to send bullion to India for trade. The most heinous part was that the nawabs sided with Britain when one of their vassals was engaged in a tussle with the British. Benares erupted in revolt against the EIC in 1781 under its governor Raja Chait Singh who was loyal to Asaf-ud-Daula. It was a forerunner of 1857 in the retributive spirit of the local troops. Asaf-ud-Daula, who followed Shuja to the throne, sent troops and money to the British. They crushed the rebellion in two months with this generous help. Even though a few loyal courtiers and the nawab had an extravagant existence with all pleasures life could offer at their disposal, the populace languished in miserable degeneracy. The author lets out some vague hints about these, but a pair of discerning eyes could easily penetrate the subterfuge and false praise heaped on the nawabs. Slavery was rampant in the province, both of the menial and sexual varieties. We read of an English architect named Anthony Polier purchasing an eight-year old girl and sending her as a ‘gift’ to a fellow European. When the girl’s father demurred, he threatened the helpless parent with the title-deed of the transaction (p.92)!

Mukhoty notes down the resurgence of Awadhi art under constant intermingling and rejuvenation from exposure to the finest European art. Jean Baptiste Gentil, who was the French Resident at Shuja’s court, wrote down his memoirs that provide us with a mirror of the high society in Awadh. He set up an art atelier and created the largest collection of art assembled by a single person in the province. British painters, starting from Telly Kettle, introduced European techniques to the local audience. It provided candour and recognisable immediacy. Painters trained in the Mughal tradition of the side profile struggled visibly with the full frontal format, the subjects often ending up with an unfortunate squint. Awadhi artists became deeply interested in light and shadow and the creation of volume and space. Mughal artists would thereafter follow the path of greater realism in their paintings. Culinary habits were refined to the highest level. Food became a matter of contestation between Mughal Delhi and nawabi Awadh. Delhi was famous for its biryani while Lucknow cultivated the pulao with infinitely many variations like gulzar, noor, koku, chameli and the like.

This review does not intend to be judgmental on the character of the nawabi aristocracy, but some points need to be mentioned, especially since the author consistently tries to downplay such unsavoury episodes if the Nawab is at fault. She is entirely hostile in the case of the English or the Maratha. An English traveller noted that Shuja was deceitful, unprincipled, bound by no laws divine or human and a tyrant in power (p.54). Even though this observation is nothing but the plain truth, the author blames the observer as being querulant. The first act of Shuja as Nawab was to abduct a beautiful Hindu Khatri woman. When a huge outcry was made, he returned her after a night in the palace (p.26). Mukhoty could have set this aside without any remark, but she stoops so low as to justify such transgressions as ‘the reaction of a boy who had once been powerless at his father’s harsh rendering of state affairs’. Was she an urdubegi (a matron who administers a harem for the pleasures of a domineering master) in a previous birth? Shuja was a licentious wretch who was fortunate to have an accommodating wife in Bahu Begum who ‘graciously’ accepted Rs. 5000 for each sexual transgression and forgave him (p.65). The author observes that she made a tidy sum of money! She became so rich – of course, by other sources as well – that she lent to the state when the need arose. The Europeans also shared the permissive ethos of the times at first. Many of them in high positions lived with Indian bibis and children from them. However, this baggage was usually shed when they returned home. William Dalrymple’s The White Mughals nicely illustrate this (read review here). Muslim governors often enslaved the children of Hindus whose families resisted his rule, emasculated the boys and then converted to Islam (p.161) like the Ottoman Janissaries. One such person, Jawahar Ali Khan, rose to the position of khwajasara (chief eunuch) of Bahu Begum and held great power in his hands. Quite naturally, such a degenerate society is bound to go downhill further. The book gives subtle hints of the elite slipping to effeminacy. The elite copied the nawab’s style and a type of male attire called the banka evolved which used kajal in the eyes and henna at the fingertips like women used to do (p.222).

Willingly or not, Awadh turned a cash cow for the British and financed all their needs. The nawabs demurred only when the British sought to control wasteful expenditure of the palace. Like a gang of robbers, both were more than willing to share the public money between themselves. It was only the ratio of split that was in contention. Asaf-ud-Daula’s tone gradually turned from one of generous largesse towards the fatherly governor general Hastings to one of wounded incredulity and finally to despair and hopelessness (p.180). Even with all this humiliation, he did not turn against them. Asaf always cozied up to the British even at the cost of self-respect. He sent 60,000 rupees along with a letter of congratulations to King George III on the king’s recovery from an illness. Out of this, half was to be paid to the king’s physician and the other was to be distributed as charity in England (p.225). He also helped the EIC by sending horses and baggage elephants in the company’s war against Tipu in the south. It is strange that the author still praises both these men! Asaf was so obsequious to the British that they viewed him with a sniggering disdain. A Britisher who was paid 1800 pounds a year with no work to do wrote to a friend in England about Asaf that he was brutal and an imbecile (p.318). The British who used Asaf for their purposes without any cover however evaluated the man as an ‘effeminate and debouched buffoon’ (p.218). But Mukhoty wants us to believe that he was ‘intelligent and full of vigour and energy’. British control of the state was total by the end of his reign. After Asaf’s death, his son Wazir Ali was initially chosen as the nawab, but the British immediately deposed him and instated his half-uncle Saadat Ali Khan who was earlier exiled to Benares. This was because he was so unpopular with the people of Lucknow, had no soldiers at his disposal and had no powerful supporters. An immense change came about in the attitude of Englishmen at this time. Earlier, EIC officials accepted the Awadhi world full of delicacy and grace with passionate enthusiasm. This changed to produce a generation of haughty men and women brash with a new confidence about their role and ‘civilizing’ mission. Evangelism also played a part in this transformation, but the author does not take this into account.

The nawabs were ardent Shias who are the followers of Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and fourth Caliph. They ostentatiously displayed Shia imagery and rituals and celebrated their festivals with great pomp. As can be expected, this became synonymous with the elite culture among nobility. Asaf built the grand monument of Bara Imambara in Lucknow to commemorate the martyrdom of Husayn, the Prophet’s grandson. This building cost 30 per cent of the annual revenue of the entire Awadh state. In addition, he spent extravagantly on overseas religious structures too. Enormous sums were expended in Iraqi cities which are holy to the Shias like Najaf and Karbala. He also paid for a canal to be dug to bring water to Najaf which is still known as the Asafiya or Hindiya Canal. Persian was admitted as the language of sophisticated poetry par excellence in the Nawab’s court. Poetry also flourished in mushairas and through courtesans. Persian phrases and idioms were self-consciously inserted into Lucknawi Urdu poetry in a process known as islah-i-zaban (correction of language). However, the society became ever more decadent with each passing year. The author ruefully admits that a great deal of Faizabad/Lucknow’s panache was built on elaborate chicanery and dissimulation.

This book is a good example of the diction that makes history books so appealing. I’m sure you will have to look up many words in the dictionary during reading as I myself had had to do. But let me assure you that the time spent on this effort is not at all wasted if you stop for a moment to ponder over the relevance and aptness of that particular word you just looked up. However, this flourish is not shared by the narrative which seems to be driven by an agenda to denigrate native Indian leaders and their actions. Mahadji Scindia, the Maratha leader who was the strongest power in India at that time, is always referred as a ‘Maratha warlord’ and nothing else. Meanwhile, Tipu Sultan of Mysore who had actually usurped power, is portrayed as a ‘warrior sultan’. This book also contains a short history of Tipu Sultan even though it is not relevant to the main topic. Is this because Mukhoty is genuinely thrilled by the antecedents of this most fiendish bigot in Indian history? Even Nadir Shah, who invaded, plundered and washed Delhi in a bloodbath, is described as ‘imposingly tall with flashing black eyes and a voice like thunder’ (p.15). This usurper is also eulogized as one who ‘staged a coup in Persia to depose the centuries-old Safavid dynasty’. But no such courtesy is ever extended to the Marathas. The author also paints all British narrative as inherently biased and hence unreliable. This is in fact an application of the cancel culture to history and is a flawed methodology. Almost all portrayals of Asaf-ud-Daula project the man as an ‘overweight, simpering fool; ridiculously pious, raunchy womanizer, effete homosexual, profligate wastrel and a miserly ruler’. This synopsis of Asaf which is borne out even by the author’s own narrative is assailed as a wilful character assassination by all the British authors who are separated not only by distance, but by time too. To counter this line of thought, she dips into French journals and diaries and reproduces the expected glorification of Awadhi nawabs and Tipu Sultan. In some instances, the author seems to be genuinely confused with some nicknames that are gained at the hands of a mute but critically appraising section of people. Emperor Muhammad Shah’s appellation of rangeela (colourful) was in fact pejorative, but Mukhoty thinks it is affectionate (p.18). This is really amusing, especially if you know why he was called rangeela, which is mentioned in some books on later Mughals.

This agenda-driven book is no better than a historical fiction. If you enjoy that genre, the book is recommended.

[Uzma Khan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Ira Mukhoty does it again with a well researched and comprehensive book.

It starts with the humble rise of Awadh under exceptional and challenging circumstances set against the diabolical nature of Indian politics in the eighteenth century, with the presence of divided provinces at large. The role of the English and French East India Companies (EIC) and the way they shaped Indian politics is presented with insightful context. The portrayal of the nawabs, the zenana, and the secular realm highlights the metamorphosis of the two erstwhile capitals, Faizabad and Lucknow respectively.
The zenith of architectural marvels and the evolving urban landscape in the capitals of Lucknow and Faizabad, along with the formation of intangible heritage practices in the formative years, are well-researched and described with great panache.

Both rulers moulded considerable challenges to their advantage, starting with Shuja-ud-Daula, who established Awadh from almost nothing amidst the volatile political predicament in Delhi and the Mughal court. Notable are also the contributions of Bahu Begum, establishing the significant role the zenana played, which is often overlooked by the orientalists. The author also describes in detail the challenges posed by the Company, faced by Shuja, while maintaining internal consistency within Awadh. Under his leadership and that of his successor Asaf-ud-Daula, the state flourished, creating a cosmopolitan state which intertwined European, Persian, and Hindustani elements, and gave rise to the secular and syncretic ‘Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb’ for which the state is still renowned.

Conclusively, the author highlights the decline of the state owing to the Anglo-French wars, the American Civil War, and the exploitative practices of the Company over time. On the contrary, the culture of Awadh being so distinct has proven to be not so fragile so as to easily succumb to time. The remnants of the monuments and architecture continue to echo the splendor of Awadh, despite the endless tribulations faced.

[Mahi Aggarwal · Rating 5 out of 5]

"The Lion and the Lily" by Ira Mukhoty

"The Lion and the Lily" by Ira Mukhoty is a masterful narrative that delves into the turbulent eighteenth century of Awadh, a region that blossomed into one of the richest and most sought-after territories in Hindustan. Author meticulous research and engaging storytelling bring to life the complexities of Awadh's history, its rulers, and the international power struggles that shaped its fate.

One of the standout features of this book is its use of diverse sources, highlighting not just the major political figures but also the influential begums, soldiers, adventurers, artists etc who played crucial roles in the region's development.

Why should you read this book-

Because of the rich Historical Context , Author explains a vivid picture of Awadh during a time of great political upheaval. The book explores the region's nominal rule by the declining Mughal Empire, the intense rivalry between the British and French East India Companies . Characterisation , cultural Renaissance ,depth of analysis makes the book a rewarding read for anyone interested in the intricate workings of history, prose is engaging and interesting. Her ability to weave a compelling story while maintaining historical accuracy is commendable.

The book may seems little complex initially but the patience and focus helps you to understand the whole .

OVERALL , This book is highly detailed and captivating account of Awadh's rise and fall in the eighteenth century. It is a must-read for history enthusiasts, offering a deep dive into a fascinating period of Indian history with global ramifications. Author skillful blend of thorough research and engaging storytelling ensures that this book is not just informative but also immensely enjoyable.

Now I am dying to read her other works.....✨✨

[Abhïshék Ghosh · Rating 5 out of 5]

One of the most anticipated books for me - since every to do with Awadh has a very close space to my heart. Mukhoty elaborates on the charades, politicking, power struggles and courtly life of the Nawabs of Awadh, with a disproportionate emphasis on Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah. This is a tale of the moving of the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow, the building of the Asafi Masjid and the Bara Imambara as famine relief measures, the establishment of a strong French presence at the court (some of whom turned out to be brave generals and loyal to the cause of the Nawab, and who provided fighting forces against the British). From Polier to Claude Martin, from Cornwallis to the Bahu Begums - this is a tale that needs to be told!

[Anshul · Rating 4 out of 5]

Ira Mukhoty exceptionally woven this intricate and often overlapping history of this 18th Century enchanting, the most richest and coveted kingdom of Awadh. I was personally so engulfed by the political ebb and flow of various personalities.
A narrative so well written as it stream from the curtained Zenana with the influential Begums at the helm to the alien merchants turned conquerors, from the disintegration of Mughal Kings and Princes to the opulent rise of Nawabs.
Throughout a well researched piece of history 'Lion and The Lily' is almost complete with a notable exception of missing the fall of Awadh (only confined to the epilogue)

[Mujib Mundewadi · Rating 4 out of 5]

Meticulously researched and elegantly written narrative of the fascinating history of the Awadh. Covers history, culture as well as cuisine. Has a lot of tit-bits about events unfolding in other parts of Hindustan during the 18th century.

[Chetan Mathur · Rating 5 out of 5]

A breezy easy to read style brings out the history and the culture in vivid colours during Awadh days.

[Sajjad Momin · Rating 5 out of 5]

superb book, thoroughly enjoyed.

[Samikshan Sengupta · Rating 5 out of 5]

Somewhat dense, but detailed & a revelation