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Formulations on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning
- GenresPsychoanalysisPhilosophy
Unknown Binding
First published January 1, 1911
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About the author
Sigmund Freud
4,393 books8,453 followersDr. Sigismund Freud (later changed to Sigmund) was a neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, who created an entirely new approach to the understanding of the human personality. He is regarded as one of the most influential—and controversial—minds of the 20th century.
In 1873, Freud began to study medicine at the University of Vienna. After graduating, he worked at the Vienna General Hospital. He collaborated with Josef Breuer in treating hysteria by the recall of painful experiences under hypnosis. In 1885, Freud went to Paris as a student of the neurologist Jean Charcot. On his return to Vienna the following year, Freud set up in private practice, specialising in nervous and brain disorders. The same year he married Martha Bernays, with whom he had six children.
Freud developed the theory that humans have an unconscious in which sexual and aggressive impulses are in perpetual conflict for supremacy with the defences against them. In 1897, he began an intensive analysis of himself. In 1900, his major work 'The Interpretation of Dreams' was published in which Freud analysed dreams in terms of unconscious desires and experiences.
In 1902, Freud was appointed Professor of Neuropathology at the University of Vienna, a post he held until 1938. Although the medical establishment disagreed with many of his theories, a group of pupils and followers began to gather around Freud. In 1910, the International Psychoanalytic Association was founded with Carl Jung, a close associate of Freud's, as the president. Jung later broke with Freud and developed his own theories.
After World War One, Freud spent less time in clinical observation and concentrated on the application of his theories to history, art, literature and anthropology. In 1923, he published 'The Ego and the Id', which suggested a new structural model of the mind, divided into the 'id, the 'ego' and the 'superego'.
In 1933, the Nazis publicly burnt a number of Freud's books. In 1938, shortly after the Nazis annexed Austria, Freud left Vienna for London with his wife and daughter Anna.
Freud had been diagnosed with cancer of the jaw in 1923, and underwent more than 30 operations. He died of cancer on 23 September 1939.
In 1873, Freud began to study medicine at the University of Vienna. After graduating, he worked at the Vienna General Hospital. He collaborated with Josef Breuer in treating hysteria by the recall of painful experiences under hypnosis. In 1885, Freud went to Paris as a student of the neurologist Jean Charcot. On his return to Vienna the following year, Freud set up in private practice, specialising in nervous and brain disorders. The same year he married Martha Bernays, with whom he had six children.
Freud developed the theory that humans have an unconscious in which sexual and aggressive impulses are in perpetual conflict for supremacy with the defences against them. In 1897, he began an intensive analysis of himself. In 1900, his major work 'The Interpretation of Dreams' was published in which Freud analysed dreams in terms of unconscious desires and experiences.
In 1902, Freud was appointed Professor of Neuropathology at the University of Vienna, a post he held until 1938. Although the medical establishment disagreed with many of his theories, a group of pupils and followers began to gather around Freud. In 1910, the International Psychoanalytic Association was founded with Carl Jung, a close associate of Freud's, as the president. Jung later broke with Freud and developed his own theories.
After World War One, Freud spent less time in clinical observation and concentrated on the application of his theories to history, art, literature and anthropology. In 1923, he published 'The Ego and the Id', which suggested a new structural model of the mind, divided into the 'id, the 'ego' and the 'superego'.
In 1933, the Nazis publicly burnt a number of Freud's books. In 1938, shortly after the Nazis annexed Austria, Freud left Vienna for London with his wife and daughter Anna.
Freud had been diagnosed with cancer of the jaw in 1923, and underwent more than 30 operations. He died of cancer on 23 September 1939.
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Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews
February 6, 2023
Bij mannen is sws het pleasure principle dominant
November 12, 2024
Sets down an essential aspect of Freudian psychoanalysis, namely, the contrast (between), tension (between), and (perhaps) interpenetration of the pleasure principle and the reality principle. Necessary framework for understanding Freud's system, particularly its civilizational implications. Also a must read for those wanting to understand Marcuse.
October 28, 2021
Over lust en realiteit
September 21, 2025
A very dense six pages. I read this as an opportunity to better understand Marcuse's understanding of the reality principle, and any possible relations this essay may have to the performance principle. I was also eager to read this after finding a footnote in Civilization and its Discontents, where section 6 of this paper would elaborate further on Freud's understanding of artistic activity. I'll write out my thoughts here.
First and foremost, what Freud wants to do with this paper is discover the connection between the development of neuroses and the patient's encounter with reality. He says, "We have long observed that every neurosis has as its result ... a forcing of the patient out of real life, an alienating of him from reality" (301). This characteristic of neurosis provides some insight into the repressive structure of reality. Freud enumerates the tensions that govern repression; the 'pleasure principle' is a primary process in psychological development that both strives towards gaining pleasure and draws back from an event which might arouse suffering. We can think of pleasure principle aims to satisfy internal needs. At one point, we hallucinated the expected satisfaction, although the "non-occurence of the expected satisfaction" leads to the abandonment of this method. Thus, we are driven to form an understanding of the "real circumstances in the external world and to endeavor to make a real alteration in them" (302). This newfound attentiveness to the external world marks the beginnings of the 'reality principle'.
This step towards the formation of the external world for the ego can be best described, I think, with the example of a baby who requires the breast for his milk. The baby wants the breast, yet cannot will the breast into existence; he learns that he is fundamentally reliant on the external situation to receive his life source, and thus becomes attentive to the real circumstances, the presence or non-presence of the mother, regardless of whether or not the reality is favorable to his desires. This opens up Freud's inquiry of the necessary adaptations necessary in the psychical apparatus for adequate reality-testing to occur. He says, "The increased significance of external reality heightened the importance, too, of the sense organs that are directed towards that external world, and of the consciousness attached to them" (302). In orienting ourselves towards reality, we learn to fundamentally become attentive' we begin to make use of sensory organs that take in the environment. Following this, we take note of the environment and maintain our knowledge of it through developing memory traces, and make use of memory to recall and adapt accordingly to the external world. Interestingly, Freud attributes the entire development of consciousness with the emergence of the reality principle.
Another point of interest: that the introduction of phantasy and daydreaming connotes a "splitting-off" of these thought processes from reality-testing. Phantasy is given free expression in children's play, and probably play in general. The emergence of play, then, is severed from any realistic qualifications. Play is posited as outside of realistic aims. We can think of play, then, as an expression of the pleasure-ego, as opposed to the reality-ego. Play is "subordinated to the pleasure principle alone", as Freud says. However, how viable is this assertion that play is subordinated fully to the only the pleasure principle? Do processes like sense perception, attention, and memory (elements of the reality-ego) not factor into playful existence? What is play if not a playing-with reality? Later in the text, it seems that Freud is more attuned to the interplay between the two principles through play itself: "Art brings about a reconciliation between the two principles in a peculiar way. An artist is originally a man who turns away from reality because he cannot come to terms with the renunciation of instinctual satisfaction... and who allows his erotic and ambitions wishes full play in the life of phantasy. He finds the way back to reality from this world of phantasy by making use of special gifts to mould his phantasies into truths of a new kind, which are valued by men as precious reflections of reality" (305). We can debate about how men react to great art, but I think more fundamentally this passage shows an obvious link between the reality and pleasure through play. One manifestation of play is the creation of art, artistic imagination; this activity opens up the space of play with reality, of loosening the structure of reality itself and encountering new ways to alter the reality. Freud doesn't seem to make this connection, and I think Marcuse really elaborates in these grey areas. More can be said on this, and I plan to explore further how work and play operate in the Freud.
First and foremost, what Freud wants to do with this paper is discover the connection between the development of neuroses and the patient's encounter with reality. He says, "We have long observed that every neurosis has as its result ... a forcing of the patient out of real life, an alienating of him from reality" (301). This characteristic of neurosis provides some insight into the repressive structure of reality. Freud enumerates the tensions that govern repression; the 'pleasure principle' is a primary process in psychological development that both strives towards gaining pleasure and draws back from an event which might arouse suffering. We can think of pleasure principle aims to satisfy internal needs. At one point, we hallucinated the expected satisfaction, although the "non-occurence of the expected satisfaction" leads to the abandonment of this method. Thus, we are driven to form an understanding of the "real circumstances in the external world and to endeavor to make a real alteration in them" (302). This newfound attentiveness to the external world marks the beginnings of the 'reality principle'.
This step towards the formation of the external world for the ego can be best described, I think, with the example of a baby who requires the breast for his milk. The baby wants the breast, yet cannot will the breast into existence; he learns that he is fundamentally reliant on the external situation to receive his life source, and thus becomes attentive to the real circumstances, the presence or non-presence of the mother, regardless of whether or not the reality is favorable to his desires. This opens up Freud's inquiry of the necessary adaptations necessary in the psychical apparatus for adequate reality-testing to occur. He says, "The increased significance of external reality heightened the importance, too, of the sense organs that are directed towards that external world, and of the consciousness attached to them" (302). In orienting ourselves towards reality, we learn to fundamentally become attentive' we begin to make use of sensory organs that take in the environment. Following this, we take note of the environment and maintain our knowledge of it through developing memory traces, and make use of memory to recall and adapt accordingly to the external world. Interestingly, Freud attributes the entire development of consciousness with the emergence of the reality principle.
Another point of interest: that the introduction of phantasy and daydreaming connotes a "splitting-off" of these thought processes from reality-testing. Phantasy is given free expression in children's play, and probably play in general. The emergence of play, then, is severed from any realistic qualifications. Play is posited as outside of realistic aims. We can think of play, then, as an expression of the pleasure-ego, as opposed to the reality-ego. Play is "subordinated to the pleasure principle alone", as Freud says. However, how viable is this assertion that play is subordinated fully to the only the pleasure principle? Do processes like sense perception, attention, and memory (elements of the reality-ego) not factor into playful existence? What is play if not a playing-with reality? Later in the text, it seems that Freud is more attuned to the interplay between the two principles through play itself: "Art brings about a reconciliation between the two principles in a peculiar way. An artist is originally a man who turns away from reality because he cannot come to terms with the renunciation of instinctual satisfaction... and who allows his erotic and ambitions wishes full play in the life of phantasy. He finds the way back to reality from this world of phantasy by making use of special gifts to mould his phantasies into truths of a new kind, which are valued by men as precious reflections of reality" (305). We can debate about how men react to great art, but I think more fundamentally this passage shows an obvious link between the reality and pleasure through play. One manifestation of play is the creation of art, artistic imagination; this activity opens up the space of play with reality, of loosening the structure of reality itself and encountering new ways to alter the reality. Freud doesn't seem to make this connection, and I think Marcuse really elaborates in these grey areas. More can be said on this, and I plan to explore further how work and play operate in the Freud.
Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews