Provisioning Paris: Merchants and Millers in the Grain and Flour Trade during the Eighteenth Century

by Steven Laurence Kaplan

Dependence upon grain deeply marked every aspect of life in eighteenth-century France. Steven Kaplan focuses upon this dependence at the point where it placed the greatest strain on the state, the society, and the individual―on the daily supply of grain and flour that furnished the staff of life. He reconstructs the history of provisioning in pre-industrial Paris and provides a comprehensive view of a culture shaped by the subsistence imperative. Who were the agents of the provisioning trade? What were their commercial practices? What sorts of relations did they maintain with each other? How did the authorities regulate their business? To answer these questions, Professor Kaplan combed the archives and libraries of France. He maps out the elementary structures of the trade and shows how they were transformed as a result of cultural and political as well as commercial and technological changes. In rich ethnographic detail he evokes the dayto-day life of merchants, millers, bakers, brokers, and market officials. He shows how flour superseded grain and how the millers overtook the merchants in the provisioning process. He explores the tension between the suppliers' need for freedom and the consumers' need for security. Even as he weaves the intricate patterns of life inside and outside the marketplace he never loses sight of the immense interests at the stability and legitimacy of the government, the durability of the social structure, and the survival of the people.

592 pages, Hardcover

First published October 1, 1984

About the author

Steven Laurence Kaplan is the Goldwin Smith Professor of European History at Cornell University and Visiting Professor of Modern History at the University of Versailles, Saint-Quentin. His many books include a guide to the best bread in Paris, Cherchez le pain: Guide des meilleures boulangeries de Paris, and The Bakers of Paris and the Bread Question, 1770–1775, also published by Duke University Press. The French government has twice knighted Kaplan for his contributions to the “sustenance and nourishment” of French culture.

Reviews

[Spellbind Consensus]

Key Themes and Arguments:

The Central Role of Grain and Flour in 18th-Century Paris: Kaplan emphasizes that grain, particularly wheat, was the most important commodity in France. Bread was the staple food for the majority of Parisians, and the availability of flour was essential to both urban survival and political stability. Kaplan argues that the provisioning of Paris was a critical public concern, as any disruption in supply could lead to price increases, hunger, and social unrest.

The Structure of the Grain and Flour Trade: Kaplan offers a detailed analysis of the organization of the grain and flour trade in Paris. He explains that the system was highly regulated by both the monarchy and local authorities. Millers, bakers, merchants, and public officials were all deeply involved in maintaining a stable flow of flour into the city. The monarchy controlled grain storage and distribution through various institutions, including the Ferme Générale (a tax-collecting body) and a network of granaries.

One of Kaplan’s main contributions is his examination of the various actors in the supply chain, such as:

Grain merchants: These were key figures in acquiring grain from rural areas and selling it in the urban market.
Millers: They converted wheat into flour, a vital step in the supply chain. Millers wielded considerable power, as they determined both the quality and quantity of flour produced.
Bakers: These artisans transformed flour into bread and were the most direct link between the flour market and the consumer.

The Role of Government Regulation: Kaplan explores the role of royal and municipal authorities in regulating the grain and flour market, highlighting a tension between free market policies and government intervention. The crown oscillated between periods of liberalization, during which market forces were allowed to operate more freely, and strict control, especially during times of famine or crisis.

One of the key regulatory mechanisms was the concept of police des grains, a regulatory framework that allowed authorities to intervene in the market to prevent hoarding, price gouging, and to ensure that grain flowed into the city. The police oversaw grain quality, inspected mills, and enforced regulations on the price of bread, attempting to stabilize food supplies and maintain public order.

Challenges in the Supply Chain: Kaplan details the numerous challenges faced by merchants and millers, including poor harvests, transportation difficulties, and the vagaries of weather. Transportation infrastructure was underdeveloped, and moving large quantities of grain into Paris was often slow and costly, which could lead to shortages. Additionally, Kaplan describes how market forces, such as supply and demand imbalances, could exacerbate these problems, leading to volatile grain prices.

Social and Political Implications of Grain Shortages: One of the book’s central arguments is that grain shortages were not merely economic issues, but also had profound social and political consequences. Kaplan demonstrates how grain riots and bread uprisings were common, as the people of Paris were highly sensitive to fluctuations in the price and availability of bread. The fear of hunger led to a close relationship between food provisioning and political stability, contributing to broader critiques of royal power, especially as seen during the French Revolution.

Economic Practices and Market Dynamics: Kaplan also explores the practices of grain merchants, emphasizing how they balanced profit motives with the demands of public service. Grain merchants often faced accusations of hoarding or manipulating the market, especially in times of shortage. Kaplan argues that while some merchants engaged in speculative behavior, many saw their role as essential to the welfare of the city, working within a system that both encouraged competition and relied heavily on cooperation between public and private interests.

The Flour War of 1775: A key event that Kaplan analyzes in great detail is the Flour War of 1775, a series of protests and riots that erupted in response to grain shortages and rising bread prices. This unrest occurred in the context of liberalization reforms introduced by Turgot, Louis XVI’s controller-general of finances, who attempted to deregulate the grain trade. Kaplan explains how these reforms backfired, leading to widespread discontent and underscoring the deep connection between grain provisioning, political legitimacy, and public order.

Cultural and Symbolic Importance of Bread: Beyond the economic and political dimensions, Kaplan touches on the symbolic significance of bread in French culture. Bread was not only a source of nutrition but also carried deep social and cultural meaning. The quality and price of bread were seen as indicators of governmental competence, and any disruptions in its availability could provoke a powerful emotional response from the populace. This symbolic dimension played a crucial role in shaping the political dynamics surrounding the grain trade.

Kaplan’s Methodology:

Kaplan’s research is based on extensive use of archival sources, including government documents, court records, correspondence, and economic data. His work blends quantitative analysis with narrative history, allowing him to reconstruct both the macroeconomic trends in the grain trade and the daily experiences of the merchants, millers, and bakers who were part of this system.

He also employs a microhistorical approach, focusing on specific incidents, regions, and individuals to illustrate larger patterns. This allows him to provide a granular view of how the grain trade operated and how policy decisions at the highest levels affected the lives of ordinary people.

Conclusion:

Kaplan’s Provisioning Paris is a monumental study that sheds light on the critical importance of grain and flour in maintaining both the physical survival and political stability of 18th-century Paris. By examining the complex interplay of market forces, government regulation, and popular unrest, Kaplan demonstrates how the grain trade was central to the functioning of the French state and society. His work highlights the vulnerability of pre-industrial urban centers to food crises and provides valuable insights into the broader economic and social structures of the Old Regime.

This book is essential for understanding the economic history of France, the causes of the French Revolution, and the role of food provisioning in early modern European societies.