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State-Private Networks and Intelligence Theory: From Cold War Liberalism to Neoconservatism
This book examines the United States neoconservative movement, arguing that its support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq was rooted in an intelligence theory shaped by the policy struggles of the Cold War.
The origins of neoconservative engagement with intelligence theory are traced to a tradition of labour anti-communism that emerged in the early 20th century and subsequently provided the Central Intelligence Agency with key allies in the state-private networks of the Cold War era. Reflecting on the break-up of Cold War liberalism and the challenge to state-private networks in the 1970s, the book maps the neoconservative response that influenced developments in United States intelligence policy, counterintelligence and covert action. With the labour roots of neoconservatism widely acknowledged but rarely systematically pursued, this new approach deploys the neoconservative literature of intelligence as evidence of a tradition rooted in the labour anti-communist self-image as allies rather than agents of the American state.
This book will be of great interest to all students of intelligence studies, Cold War history, United States foreign policy and international relations.
The origins of neoconservative engagement with intelligence theory are traced to a tradition of labour anti-communism that emerged in the early 20th century and subsequently provided the Central Intelligence Agency with key allies in the state-private networks of the Cold War era. Reflecting on the break-up of Cold War liberalism and the challenge to state-private networks in the 1970s, the book maps the neoconservative response that influenced developments in United States intelligence policy, counterintelligence and covert action. With the labour roots of neoconservatism widely acknowledged but rarely systematically pursued, this new approach deploys the neoconservative literature of intelligence as evidence of a tradition rooted in the labour anti-communist self-image as allies rather than agents of the American state.
This book will be of great interest to all students of intelligence studies, Cold War history, United States foreign policy and international relations.
221 pages, Hardcover
Published June 17, 2022
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January 20, 2024
This was a meticulously researched volume about the evolution of competing theories of intelligence within the US intelligence community (IC): One theory held that intelligence products should be as objective as possible, representing a detached analysis and synthesis of information, from which the recipient (President, National Security Council, etc.) could derive some guidance, get a sense of events, input which might then inform policy decisions. This theory held that analysis of information was the primary reason for intelligence agencies although other aspects of intelligence, such as recruiting assets, counter-intelligence, and covert actions, were also important. The other theory held that on the other hand, counter-intelligence was the most important function of the intelligence agencies, and that the chief reason for their existence was to find out not only what the adversary was thinking and planning, but also to find out if the adversary had managed to penetrate US intelligence agencies. Everything else was subordinated to this main purpose - and as one can imagine, this elevation of a perpetually confrontational function was a product of the Cold War. The era of detente brought weakened the cold warriors, but they didn't entirely fade away - even as the years of turbulence and investigation caused the IC to operate more cautiously. The liberal Cold War warriors became more conservative in the era of detente and turned into neoconservatives. They went a step further and decided that intelligence products should be used to bolster US foreign policy rather than remain simply objective. The culmination of this viewpoint was the fictional WMD claim used to justify the invasion of Iraq in 2003. (Albeit Saddam Hussein was trying to develop WMDs, which was why for years there had been weapons inspectors visiting research sites in Iraq, so it was of course not entirely unbelievable that Hussein had finally succeeded in building an A-bomb. However, no such bomb was found when Iraq was invaded.)
A major area of focus of the volume is the relationship between the IC, specifically the CIA, with private non-profits, which could perform various tasks for the CIA and thus keep the US government from being associated with things like supporting labor unions, publications, etc. This effort was evidently ongoing worldwide and was a way to advance the US point of view through proxies such as foundations, labor unions, non-profits, publications, radio stations, etc., without the US being associated with these efforts. This promotion of democracy was supposed to create an equivalence between the democratic West and the totalitarian/communist East - and as the West was hyped, it might dissuade some viewers/readers to side with the US way of life rather than that of the Soviets. That at least was the idea, but the tangled web of payments, fake foundations that the CIA created used to finance various groups, etc., more or less confirm what many have always suspected: That the biggest fear of the West is the spreading of revolutions and so the maximum effort is directed toward thwarting them, or creating a negative mindset about communism etc.
A number of major US labor unions were involved in working closely with the CIA - such as the AFL-CIO and the ILGWU. The book exhaustively traces the relationships of the top leadership of these unions with the CIA - some of the labor leaders were once communists themselves but became disillusioned when Stalin took over and more or less quashed dissent within international communist organizations. These ex-communists remained liberal and some eventually became conservative Democrats - hence, neoconservatives. The idea was that these powerful US unions could forge links with their counterparts throughout the world and be a conduit to support foreign labor leaders who think like us, while rejecting those union leaders who advocate revolutionary communist action. These US unions were not only "co-opted" by the establishment, they also worked to promote our ideology of democracy and capitalism around the world. It is quite possible that many union members had no idea what was going on, that some union leaders had become paid CIA "assets."
These are only a few of the many themes covered in this very interesting book. The writing style though is quite dry, and many will find the book rather dull unfortunately. For anyone who is interested in intelligence theory and history, however, the book should be an interesting read.
Here are the quotes, which I have paraphrased.
From the Introduction:
"[An era of political splintering of the liberal foreign policy consensus followed the Vietnam War era revelations about covert actions and, later, Watergate. Some] ... former CIO leaders joined the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC) led by Michael Harrington."
"Activists [more aligned with] ...the AFL-CIO leadership and the old AFL anti-communist tradition [moved] ... towards what became the Social Democrats USA (SD USA)..."
"...the emergence of overt democracy promotion as a replacement for CIA covert political action abroad."
"...the 1986 Iran-Contra Affair...marked the high water-mark of neoconservative influence in the Reagan administration..."
"[In the book "Silent Warfare" authors Shulsky and Schmitt stated that] ...truth is not the goal, but only a means towards victory..."
"...documentation in the British National Archives on wartime cooperation between British intelligence services and the AFL."
"...the evolution of the [labor leaders] Lovestoneites over a period from the 1930s to the early 1960s which saw them make a complex transition from fellow travelers of the Comintern to allies of the CIA."
"...the circumstances under which some labor activists were willing to enter into an alliance with the intelligence community..."
"...a group of labor activists centered on Jay Lovestone whose participation in state-private networks is well-documented...
"...the emergence of labor anti-communism in the early 20th century..."
"[The sometimes problematic]...alliance between policy-makers and activists was formalized in the CIA's sponsorship of the Non-Communist Left."
From Chapter 1: Labor anti-communism before the Cold War:
"The [AFL's]... heritage of transnational action, most significantly its support for Woodrow Wilson's policy of intervention in the First World War and the resulting allied propaganda effort."
"In 1915, [Jay Lovestone] ...entered the City College of New York, an institution which had a large working class Jewish student [population] ... at a time when Ivy League universities still practiced antisemitic discrimination..."
"By January 1941, all British intelligence agencies in the US were [gathered] ... together within British Security Co-ordination (BSC) based at the Rockefeller Center in New York under Sir William Stephenson..."
"...the BSC and its fronts were a major influence on the creation of a new United States intelligence apparatus."
"The formation of [the OSS Labor Section in June 1942] ... reflected the high priority attached to labor by the OSS."
"...ongoing class tensions between US intelligence chiefs and their labor operatives..."
"The unorthodox anti-communist aspect of [OSS member, Italian socialist exile, and former ILGWU staffer Serafino] Romualdi's activities was in line with an AFL agenda that was ...out of sympathy with wartime popular front sentiment."
"Roosevelt ...was the most personally committed of the allied leaders to a post-war continuation of the grand alliance, with the Soviet Union as one of the four guarantors of the United Nations..."
"...Dubinsky and fellow garment union leader Sydney Hillman [founded the American Labor Party] in 1936. ... to provide a way for New York voters to support Roosevelt without supporting the Tammany-Hall-tainted Democratic Party in the state..."
"Over the course of little more than a decade [the Lovestoneites] ... moved from the patronage of the Soviet Union and the Comintern into alliances first with Britain's BSC and then with the US' OSS."
From Chapter 2: AFL-CIA The Cold War state-private network
"...AFL labor diplomacy as a key feature of ...US ...covert action in the Cold War."
"...the importance of the 'Non-communist Left' as a counterweight to communism was one common element that would emerge among diplomats, intelligence officers and ex-communist intellectuals in the early post-war period..."
"[According to] ... CIO historian Harvey Levenstein...HUAC ...."was too obviously a part of the conservative Democratic revolt in Congress against the liberal New Dealers..."
"...Allen Dulles, a former Standard Oil attorney and one of the centrist republicans brought into OSS by William Donovan..."
"...in the struggle over international labor organizations [the AFL and the CIO both sought] ... to have their members appointed as US labor attaches and in other positions abroad..."
"[An operation of the OSS Labor Division that recruited] ... socialist exiles to be parachuted into Germany [was] ... apparently ...judged to have been infiltrated by Soviet intelligence..."
"...the relationship between the AFL anti-communists and US policy-makers...[shaped] US policies at home, as well [as] implementing them abroad. ...among the foremost advocates of military expansion following the outbreak of the Korean War, as they had been in the face of the Nazi threat ten years earlier."
"[Problems between the CIA and the Free Trade Union Committee] ... undermined the latter's efforts to build links between the Paris-based Free Trade Union Center-in-Exile and the National Committee for a Free Europe (NCFE), one of the CIA's largest front operations..."
"...complaints from East European trade unionists that the exile national committees being set up by the NCFE were dominated by right-wingers and wartime collaborators..."
"...in the 1950s...the CIA and the AFL-CIO supported Israeli technical experts in Africa to prevent newly independent nations [from] turning to the Eastern Bloc advisors..."
"...Lovestone...criticized the CIA's Frank Wisner and Radio Free Europe (RFE) for inciting the [1956 Hungarian] revolution and then failing to support it..."
"Israel's combination of socialist developmental-ism and alignment with the West made it...a sort of geopolitical equivalent of the Non-Communist Left."
From Chapter 3: The break-up of the post-war consensus
"The ...identification of...organized labor with Democratic presidents, and ...American foreign policy, was to prove fateful when the establishment consensus in favor of that policy [collapsed] ... under the pressure of the Vietnam War..."
"By the mid-1960s, ...the CIA's sponsorship of private organizations was beginning to be exposed."
"In April 1967, 'Ramparts' published [an] ...expose of CIA front organizations, despite CIA attempts to derail its investigation..."
"[Senator Henry] Jackson was a classic Cold War liberal with a record of hawkishness going back to the 1940s... ...he was a ...supporter of the defense industry, notably of Boeing in his home state..."
From Chapter 4: The neoconservative counteroffensive of the 1970s
"...the CIA's alliance with organized labor began to come under public scrutiny in the wake of the Vietnam War..."
From Chapter 5: The Consortium for the Study of Intelligence [CSI]. A paradigm for political warfare
"...CSI's ideas ...[constituted] a neoconservative intelligence paradigm. ...reflected the perspective of labor anti-communists and professional intelligence officers who sought to revive the state-private network of the early Cold War in opposition to detente."
From Chapter 6: Neoconservative intelligence in the Reagan era
"...the Committee [for the Free World, in its inaugural statement in the New York Times on 6 April 1981] attributed the insurgency in El Salvador to Soviet expansionism backed by Cuba..."
"[Congress initially]... gave cautious support to a December 1981 presidential finding which authorized support for Contra opposition fighters based in Honduras in order to interdict Nicaraguan support for rebels in El Salvador..."
"[But] In December 1982, Congress [imposed] ... restraints by passing an amendment, introduced by the chair of the House Intelligence Committee, Edward P. Boland, prohibiting CIA funding 'for the purpose of overthrowing the Government of Nicaragua'... [Then] A second 'Boland amendment'] passed [in] ... October 1984, [banned the] funding of paramilitary activity in Nicaragua..."
"[In] ...1985 ... North's fundraising came to encompass the process of a separate arms-for-hostages deal with Iran..."
"[According to] A [1988] Congressional Staff report: The NSC and the [State Department's Office of Public Diplomacy for Latin America and the Caribbean (S/LPD) ...under [State Department cover] hired outside consultants and gave encouragement support and direction to groups of private citizens outside the Government... [which] raised money for Contra weapons, lobbied... Congress, ran sophisticated media campaigns in targeted Congressional districts, and worked with S/LPD to influence American public opinion through manipulation of the American press."
"...factors which pointed to Soviet weakness in Iran including the repression of the Iranian Communist Party, diplomatic expulsions, and Iranian support for the Afghan Mujaheddin..."
"...in November 1986...a Lebanese newspaper revealed the existence of the [Iran-Contra] arms-for hostages deal..."
"[Some] involved in the Iran-Conra Affair were found to have broken the law: Elliott Abrams, the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, and the National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane were convicted of withholding evidence from Congress but later pardoned by George H.W. Bush... Oliver North was convicted on three counts related to Iran-Contra which were overturned in a split decision in 1990..."
"...[the zeitgeist] ... was turning against the neoconservatives. The view that the Soviet Union remained...expansionist...seemed increasingly out of touch with Gorbachev's reforms..."
"...the neoconservatives were increasingly out of touch with developments in the Eastern Bloc."
"...the neoconservatives [were incorporated] into the wider anti-detente movement during the 1970s."
"...[influential] neoconservatives ...remained ...advocates of the full range of covert action, from propaganda to paramilitary action, even after the creation of open instruments like the National Endowment for Democracy..."
"...the neoconservative emphasis on democracy promotion and their 'lack of conceptual innovation' in the late 1980s..."
From Chapter 7: From the end of the Cold War to the War on Terror
"In the early 1960s, Angleton had been convinced that the Sino-Soviet split had been a fake, despite the [counterproductive] ... nature of such a deception."
"...[Leo] Strauss's doctrine of 'esoteric writing,'...held that most pre-modern authors had sought to conceal part of the meaning of their texts from some readers..."
From the Conclusion
"...neo-conservatism emerged out of the break-up of Cold War liberalism in the 1970s..."
"...this history of neo-conservatism was 'linked to that of the unions...a largely neglected aspect of the Cold War'"
"...[In the early 2000s] ... an American state guided by the neoconservative intelligence paradigm had defeated the enemy only to find it had deceived itself."
A major area of focus of the volume is the relationship between the IC, specifically the CIA, with private non-profits, which could perform various tasks for the CIA and thus keep the US government from being associated with things like supporting labor unions, publications, etc. This effort was evidently ongoing worldwide and was a way to advance the US point of view through proxies such as foundations, labor unions, non-profits, publications, radio stations, etc., without the US being associated with these efforts. This promotion of democracy was supposed to create an equivalence between the democratic West and the totalitarian/communist East - and as the West was hyped, it might dissuade some viewers/readers to side with the US way of life rather than that of the Soviets. That at least was the idea, but the tangled web of payments, fake foundations that the CIA created used to finance various groups, etc., more or less confirm what many have always suspected: That the biggest fear of the West is the spreading of revolutions and so the maximum effort is directed toward thwarting them, or creating a negative mindset about communism etc.
A number of major US labor unions were involved in working closely with the CIA - such as the AFL-CIO and the ILGWU. The book exhaustively traces the relationships of the top leadership of these unions with the CIA - some of the labor leaders were once communists themselves but became disillusioned when Stalin took over and more or less quashed dissent within international communist organizations. These ex-communists remained liberal and some eventually became conservative Democrats - hence, neoconservatives. The idea was that these powerful US unions could forge links with their counterparts throughout the world and be a conduit to support foreign labor leaders who think like us, while rejecting those union leaders who advocate revolutionary communist action. These US unions were not only "co-opted" by the establishment, they also worked to promote our ideology of democracy and capitalism around the world. It is quite possible that many union members had no idea what was going on, that some union leaders had become paid CIA "assets."
These are only a few of the many themes covered in this very interesting book. The writing style though is quite dry, and many will find the book rather dull unfortunately. For anyone who is interested in intelligence theory and history, however, the book should be an interesting read.
Here are the quotes, which I have paraphrased.
From the Introduction:
"[An era of political splintering of the liberal foreign policy consensus followed the Vietnam War era revelations about covert actions and, later, Watergate. Some] ... former CIO leaders joined the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC) led by Michael Harrington."
"Activists [more aligned with] ...the AFL-CIO leadership and the old AFL anti-communist tradition [moved] ... towards what became the Social Democrats USA (SD USA)..."
"...the emergence of overt democracy promotion as a replacement for CIA covert political action abroad."
"...the 1986 Iran-Contra Affair...marked the high water-mark of neoconservative influence in the Reagan administration..."
"[In the book "Silent Warfare" authors Shulsky and Schmitt stated that] ...truth is not the goal, but only a means towards victory..."
"...documentation in the British National Archives on wartime cooperation between British intelligence services and the AFL."
"...the evolution of the [labor leaders] Lovestoneites over a period from the 1930s to the early 1960s which saw them make a complex transition from fellow travelers of the Comintern to allies of the CIA."
"...the circumstances under which some labor activists were willing to enter into an alliance with the intelligence community..."
"...a group of labor activists centered on Jay Lovestone whose participation in state-private networks is well-documented...
"...the emergence of labor anti-communism in the early 20th century..."
"[The sometimes problematic]...alliance between policy-makers and activists was formalized in the CIA's sponsorship of the Non-Communist Left."
From Chapter 1: Labor anti-communism before the Cold War:
"The [AFL's]... heritage of transnational action, most significantly its support for Woodrow Wilson's policy of intervention in the First World War and the resulting allied propaganda effort."
"In 1915, [Jay Lovestone] ...entered the City College of New York, an institution which had a large working class Jewish student [population] ... at a time when Ivy League universities still practiced antisemitic discrimination..."
"By January 1941, all British intelligence agencies in the US were [gathered] ... together within British Security Co-ordination (BSC) based at the Rockefeller Center in New York under Sir William Stephenson..."
"...the BSC and its fronts were a major influence on the creation of a new United States intelligence apparatus."
"The formation of [the OSS Labor Section in June 1942] ... reflected the high priority attached to labor by the OSS."
"...ongoing class tensions between US intelligence chiefs and their labor operatives..."
"The unorthodox anti-communist aspect of [OSS member, Italian socialist exile, and former ILGWU staffer Serafino] Romualdi's activities was in line with an AFL agenda that was ...out of sympathy with wartime popular front sentiment."
"Roosevelt ...was the most personally committed of the allied leaders to a post-war continuation of the grand alliance, with the Soviet Union as one of the four guarantors of the United Nations..."
"...Dubinsky and fellow garment union leader Sydney Hillman [founded the American Labor Party] in 1936. ... to provide a way for New York voters to support Roosevelt without supporting the Tammany-Hall-tainted Democratic Party in the state..."
"Over the course of little more than a decade [the Lovestoneites] ... moved from the patronage of the Soviet Union and the Comintern into alliances first with Britain's BSC and then with the US' OSS."
From Chapter 2: AFL-CIA The Cold War state-private network
"...AFL labor diplomacy as a key feature of ...US ...covert action in the Cold War."
"...the importance of the 'Non-communist Left' as a counterweight to communism was one common element that would emerge among diplomats, intelligence officers and ex-communist intellectuals in the early post-war period..."
"[According to] ... CIO historian Harvey Levenstein...HUAC ...."was too obviously a part of the conservative Democratic revolt in Congress against the liberal New Dealers..."
"...Allen Dulles, a former Standard Oil attorney and one of the centrist republicans brought into OSS by William Donovan..."
"...in the struggle over international labor organizations [the AFL and the CIO both sought] ... to have their members appointed as US labor attaches and in other positions abroad..."
"[An operation of the OSS Labor Division that recruited] ... socialist exiles to be parachuted into Germany [was] ... apparently ...judged to have been infiltrated by Soviet intelligence..."
"...the relationship between the AFL anti-communists and US policy-makers...[shaped] US policies at home, as well [as] implementing them abroad. ...among the foremost advocates of military expansion following the outbreak of the Korean War, as they had been in the face of the Nazi threat ten years earlier."
"[Problems between the CIA and the Free Trade Union Committee] ... undermined the latter's efforts to build links between the Paris-based Free Trade Union Center-in-Exile and the National Committee for a Free Europe (NCFE), one of the CIA's largest front operations..."
"...complaints from East European trade unionists that the exile national committees being set up by the NCFE were dominated by right-wingers and wartime collaborators..."
"...in the 1950s...the CIA and the AFL-CIO supported Israeli technical experts in Africa to prevent newly independent nations [from] turning to the Eastern Bloc advisors..."
"...Lovestone...criticized the CIA's Frank Wisner and Radio Free Europe (RFE) for inciting the [1956 Hungarian] revolution and then failing to support it..."
"Israel's combination of socialist developmental-ism and alignment with the West made it...a sort of geopolitical equivalent of the Non-Communist Left."
From Chapter 3: The break-up of the post-war consensus
"The ...identification of...organized labor with Democratic presidents, and ...American foreign policy, was to prove fateful when the establishment consensus in favor of that policy [collapsed] ... under the pressure of the Vietnam War..."
"By the mid-1960s, ...the CIA's sponsorship of private organizations was beginning to be exposed."
"In April 1967, 'Ramparts' published [an] ...expose of CIA front organizations, despite CIA attempts to derail its investigation..."
"[Senator Henry] Jackson was a classic Cold War liberal with a record of hawkishness going back to the 1940s... ...he was a ...supporter of the defense industry, notably of Boeing in his home state..."
From Chapter 4: The neoconservative counteroffensive of the 1970s
"...the CIA's alliance with organized labor began to come under public scrutiny in the wake of the Vietnam War..."
From Chapter 5: The Consortium for the Study of Intelligence [CSI]. A paradigm for political warfare
"...CSI's ideas ...[constituted] a neoconservative intelligence paradigm. ...reflected the perspective of labor anti-communists and professional intelligence officers who sought to revive the state-private network of the early Cold War in opposition to detente."
From Chapter 6: Neoconservative intelligence in the Reagan era
"...the Committee [for the Free World, in its inaugural statement in the New York Times on 6 April 1981] attributed the insurgency in El Salvador to Soviet expansionism backed by Cuba..."
"[Congress initially]... gave cautious support to a December 1981 presidential finding which authorized support for Contra opposition fighters based in Honduras in order to interdict Nicaraguan support for rebels in El Salvador..."
"[But] In December 1982, Congress [imposed] ... restraints by passing an amendment, introduced by the chair of the House Intelligence Committee, Edward P. Boland, prohibiting CIA funding 'for the purpose of overthrowing the Government of Nicaragua'... [Then] A second 'Boland amendment'] passed [in] ... October 1984, [banned the] funding of paramilitary activity in Nicaragua..."
"[In] ...1985 ... North's fundraising came to encompass the process of a separate arms-for-hostages deal with Iran..."
"[According to] A [1988] Congressional Staff report: The NSC and the [State Department's Office of Public Diplomacy for Latin America and the Caribbean (S/LPD) ...under [State Department cover] hired outside consultants and gave encouragement support and direction to groups of private citizens outside the Government... [which] raised money for Contra weapons, lobbied... Congress, ran sophisticated media campaigns in targeted Congressional districts, and worked with S/LPD to influence American public opinion through manipulation of the American press."
"...factors which pointed to Soviet weakness in Iran including the repression of the Iranian Communist Party, diplomatic expulsions, and Iranian support for the Afghan Mujaheddin..."
"...in November 1986...a Lebanese newspaper revealed the existence of the [Iran-Contra] arms-for hostages deal..."
"[Some] involved in the Iran-Conra Affair were found to have broken the law: Elliott Abrams, the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, and the National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane were convicted of withholding evidence from Congress but later pardoned by George H.W. Bush... Oliver North was convicted on three counts related to Iran-Contra which were overturned in a split decision in 1990..."
"...[the zeitgeist] ... was turning against the neoconservatives. The view that the Soviet Union remained...expansionist...seemed increasingly out of touch with Gorbachev's reforms..."
"...the neoconservatives were increasingly out of touch with developments in the Eastern Bloc."
"...the neoconservatives [were incorporated] into the wider anti-detente movement during the 1970s."
"...[influential] neoconservatives ...remained ...advocates of the full range of covert action, from propaganda to paramilitary action, even after the creation of open instruments like the National Endowment for Democracy..."
"...the neoconservative emphasis on democracy promotion and their 'lack of conceptual innovation' in the late 1980s..."
From Chapter 7: From the end of the Cold War to the War on Terror
"In the early 1960s, Angleton had been convinced that the Sino-Soviet split had been a fake, despite the [counterproductive] ... nature of such a deception."
"...[Leo] Strauss's doctrine of 'esoteric writing,'...held that most pre-modern authors had sought to conceal part of the meaning of their texts from some readers..."
From the Conclusion
"...neo-conservatism emerged out of the break-up of Cold War liberalism in the 1970s..."
"...this history of neo-conservatism was 'linked to that of the unions...a largely neglected aspect of the Cold War'"
"...[In the early 2000s] ... an American state guided by the neoconservative intelligence paradigm had defeated the enemy only to find it had deceived itself."
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