Our Moral Fate: Evolution and the Escape from Tribalism

by Allen Buchanan

A provocative and probing argument showing how human beings can for the first time in history take charge of their moral fate.

Is tribalism--the political and cultural divisions between Us and Them--an inherent part of our basic moral psychology? Many scientists link tribalism and morality, arguing that the evolved "moral mind" is tribalistic. Any escape from tribalism, according to this thinking, would be partial and fragile, because it goes against the grain of our nature. In this book, Allen Buchanan offers a counterargument: the moral mind is highly flexible, capable of both tribalism and deeply inclusive moralities, depending on the social environment in which the moral mind operates.

We can't be morally tribalistic by nature, Buchanan explains, because quite recently there has been a remarkable shift away from tribalism and toward inclusiveness, as growing numbers of people acknowledge that all human beings have equal moral status, and that at least some nonhumans also have moral standing. These are what Buchanan terms the Two Great Expansions of moral regard. And yet, he argues, moral progress is not inevitable but depends partly on whether we have the good fortune to develop as moral agents in a society that provides the right conditions for realizing our moral potential. But morality need not depend on luck. We can take charge of our moral fate by deliberately shaping our social environment--by engaging in scientifically informed "moral institutional design." For the first time in human history, human beings can determine what sort of morality is predominant in their societies and what kinds of moral agents they are.

Genres: Politics

296 pages, Hardcover

Published March 24, 2020

About the author

Allen Edward Buchanan is the James B. Duke Professor of philosophy at Duke University and also professor of the Philosophy of International Law at the Dickson Poon School of Law at King's College, London. He received his PhD from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1975. He taught at the University of Arizona, the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the University of Minnesota before joining Duke's faculty in 2002 as professor of public policy and philosophy. He has written six books covering such topics as Marx, applied ethics (especially bio-medical ethics), social justice, and international justice, including the foundations of international law. Buchanan served as staff philosopher for the President's Commission on Medical Ethics in 1983. From 1996 to 2000 he served on the Advisory Council for the National Human Genome Research Institute. He is a fellow of the Hastings Center, an independent bioethics research institution.

Reviews

[Charlie Huenemann · Rating 4 out of 5]

Buchanan argues that tribalism is not human nature. Nature shapes human beings to engage in basic "moral-ish" behavior having to do with reciprocity, keeping promises, sharing, and restraints on what's allowed. The environment then spins that basic set of abilities in some particular direction. For a long span of human history, survival and resources have been problems, and tribalism has been the result. But (Buchanan continues) in the last three centuries or so we have had a surplus of people and resources, which has allowed us to think beyond tribalism and to expand our spheres of moral concern to include other people who aren't like us and non-human animals. The good news is that, so long as favorable conditions prevail, we are only as tribal as we want to be; if we want, we can continue to deepen our concern for other beings.

The bad news is that, with climate change and enormous disparities of power, favorable conditions are not likely to continue. Buchanan is optimistic at the end, though I can't see why; maybe it's just because a slim hope is better than none.

The book is written clearly, with signposts for arguments and conclusions, and many vivid examples. Detailed and carefully developed historical arguments would have made the book more compelling: does history really support Buchanan's claim? Two chapters near the end seem to reveal Buchanan's own tribal attitude against Trump supporters, but, hey, if the shoe fits....

[Per Kraulis · Rating 5 out of 5]

Are humans inherently tribal? Has evolution focused our moral sense to consider only the group to which we belong ? Allen Buchanan thinks it is obvious that the two Great Expansions, as he calls them, shows that this cannot be the case. The first Great Expansion is the inclusion of all humans in the moral sphere, that is, the ideal of universality, that all humans, as humans, have equal moral standing. The second Great Expansion is the view that also (some) animals have a moral standing, that mistreatment of animals is a moral problem. These two expansions do not make sense if one takes for granted that the human moral sense has evolved solely as a regulator of tribal life.

Buchanan, an accomplished philosopher, criticizes several authorities who, he thinks, do not consider the fact of the two Great Expansions, or at least make statements that do not reflect taking it seriously. A central line in the criticism is aimed at two dogmas that Buchanan thinks need to be demolished: The Cooperation dogma, which states that since morality arose as a solution to fundamental problems of cooperation, that is all it is. Wrong, says Buchanan. Morality has outgrown its origins.

The second is the Tribalism dogma, that we are morally hardwired for tribalism due to our evolutionary history. In contrast, Buchanan proposes that we have a flexible moral sense, which is expressed as different moral attitudes depending on the context. If the environment permits, our moral mind moves in the direction of universality, away from tribalism. The economic growth of the last few centuries, and many concomitant societal changes, form the basis for such a change in our moral sense, and is the basis for the two Great Expansions. Buchanan makes clear that this development is by no means deterministic. Backsliding into tribalism is perfectly possible, and can be seen to occur, illustrated by many developments in the current political climate in the democratic world.

The writing is clear and forceful. The author really wants to make his position clear, which is so refreshing. However, he overdoes it at times, reiterating points that have already been made. On the other hand, the summary of his argument that makes up the last chapter is actually a very good way of ending the book.

Unusually in this genre, there is an extensive discussion of the state of contemporary politics, and what to do about current issues. Buchanan analyses the current polarization in much of the democratic world as a form of intrasocietal tribalism, and discusses the societal features and developments that have led to it. I find this part important and suggestive, but also a little thin. I cannot really fault the author for this, since I cannot provide any better analysis. The lack of concrete ideas to overcome the current stalemate is shared by most writers. If Buchanan's text can provoke further thinking in this direction, then it has performed its duty.

This is a highly interesting and thought-provoking book. It deserves to be discussed broadly, by scientists, philosophers and the general public.

[Managing my virtual footprint · Rating 3 out of 5]

A continuation of his 2018 book. A lot of the material is just repetition of what he said, but the second half and its introduction of the concepts of moral identity and ideology is extremely interesting and a necessary addition to the theory first presented on that 2016 article. A good book, but not as tight and clean in its argumentation as the 2018 one.