The European subcontinent in the eighth and ninth centuries resembled to a great extent those regions which we today call "underdeveloped." By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Europe had acquired the edge over other parts of the world that it still holds (along with its successful colonies, e.g. in the Americas). The question of why some regions of the world modernized while others remain undeveloped remains highly relevant today. This volume presents fifteen up-to-date essays that address this question as well as how perceptions of this process have changed over the last hundred years.