Middle Knowledge: Human Freedom in Divine Sovereignty

by John D. Laing

Most Christians believe God is in control, but they are unsure of how to reconcile that control with their struggles with sin, the command to evangelize, and the immense suffering in the world and their own lives.

Laing offers an introduction to the doctrine of providence based on the theory of middle knowledge, first articulated in the sixteenth century. This view describes how creatures have true free will and God has perfect knowledge of what each creature could and would do in any circumstance. Middle knowledge helps answer the most perplexing theological questions: predestination and salvation, the existence of evil, divine and human authorship of Scripture, and science and the Christian faith. Laing provides extensive biblical support as well as practical applications for this theology.

Genres: Theology

368 pages, Paperback

Published April 24, 2018

Reviews

[Brian Chilton · Rating 4 out of 5]

Great book! I highly recommend it. The only issue I have with the book is that Arminianism and Molinism are combined as the same system. The two, while similar, have substantial differences.

[Bob · Rating 4 out of 5]

Summary: An exposition and defense of the doctrine of middle knowledge, also known as Molinism, and arguments for why this best addresses other theological issues.

God's sovereignty and human freedom. Somehow both logic and experience witness to the truth of both and yet how the two may be understood together has been one of the toughest questions facing theologians and Christian apologists. A truly sovereign God has both the knowledge, indeed foreknowledge, and power to accomplish God's will. If this is so, in what sense can humans be said to be free? On the other hand, humans often act in ways contrary to God's will, sometimes in horribly evil ways that inflict great suffering on others. If God has the power to stop this, why doesn't God? How can we say God is both good, and powerful.

One of the ways some theologians have responded to this question is to advance the idea of "middle knowledge." The name comes from the idea that this is knowledge that is in the middle of, or between God's natural and free knowledge. God's natural knowledge is both necessary and independent of God's free will, that is what God knows by his nature. God's free knowledge has to do with his choices in creating and is contingent and dependent upon God's free will. Middle knowledge is between these two in that it is both contingent, having to do with what God would do if various states would obtain, but also independent of God's free will in being "pre-volitional." What this means is that God is able to pre-know the various counterfactuals of human freedom and choose to act in creation in ways that effect his will through the actions of creatures who act freely.

This work by John D. Laing unpacks this theological approach, also called Molinism after Luis de Molina, the Jesuit theologian who first propounded these ideas, and defends it against both Calvinist and Arminian objections (which he often associates with Open Theism, an association that some may challenge). He begins with introducing different models of providence (process theology, open theism, Calvinism, theological fatalism, and middle knowlege) and the assumptions these make about God's omnipotence and omniscience and about human freedom. He then explicates the doctrine of middle knowledge and the ideas of counterfactuals and probable worlds so critical to this approach.

He then addresses three problems that are raised with the opponents, the conditional excluded middle problem, that Molinism leads to determinism, and what Laing believes the key objection, which is the grounding objection--that there is no ground or guarantee of the truth of counterfactuals of freedom in either God or the person. In a separate chapter he also deals with the circularity objection.

Following this, Laing applies the doctrine of middle knowledge to our understanding of other Christian doctrines: divine foreknowledge and creaturely free will, predestination and salvation, including discussions of atonement and the relationship of regeneration and faith, the problem of evil, inerrancy and inspiration (particularly as this bears on the idea of verbal plenary inspiration and the freedom of the writers of scripture), and questions of science and theology including questions about God's involvement in physical processes and how an intelligent designer might be at work through mutations and how one might account for creaturely flaws. What Laing seeks to do in each chapter is to show how middle knowledge is the best construct providing explanations of the ways of God in the life of his creatures.

Two final chapters consider the biblical support for middle knowledge over and against Open Theism and Calvinism, and the ways middle knowledge provides existentially satisfying answers to a number of aspects of Christian living: unfulfilled prophecy, petitionary prayer, evangelism, discipleship, having a God worthy of worship, dealing with end of life issues, and the end of all things.

Laing, who also wrote the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on Middle Knowledge, is one of the leading proponents of this theological approach. He engages carefully with critics, notably Open Theist William Hasker. He both answers objections and advances arguments for the explanatory power of the Molinist approach, while being honest about places, like the problem of the Holocaust, where all explanations struggle. This may be one of the best single author works on Molinism, or middle knowledge apart from the writings of Molina himself. Laing does careful philosophical work in this book, so be prepared for some heavy lifting in understanding counterfactuals, possible worlds, and the like.

I'm not sure at the end of the day whether I am convinced. I'm always a bit suspicious that explanations that reconcile God's sovereignty and human freedom give away too much of one or the other or both. Perhaps I'm a bit more comfortable leaving the apparent contradiction between these two unexplained and unreconciled. But Laing has given me a good deal to think about, particularly in his discussions of inerrancy and inspiration, and his discussion of science. I certainly understand the idea of middle knowledge and the claims of its proponents far better because of this work. Definitely worth digging into if you care about questions of human freedom and divine sovereignty.

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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary review copy of this book from the publisher in exchange for an honest review. The opinions I have expressed are my own.

[David Bruyn · Rating 4 out of 5]

Very thorough treatment of Molinism and libertarian free-will.

[Jim · Rating 5 out of 5]

“One of the most widely held doctrines of Christianity is that of meticulous divine providence. The doctrine of providence refers to God’s governance and preservation of the world-his ongoing activity in the creation-and it is “meticulous,” because it refers to the smallest details of all events”(13).

So begins John D. Laing’s book on Middle Knowledge (MK): Human Freedom In Divine Soveriegnty. He is correct in highlighting God’s providence over the affairs of His creation. As believers, you can imagine how important such a belief would be. Difficulties begin to arise when our belief in God’s providence leads to other questions that any thinking person would like to know. Questions such as “how exactly does God provide for His creation?” opens as you can imagine a myriad of responses addressing the relationship between God’s providence and human freedom. In MK Laing want’s to make the argument that it is through MK that we find the best explanation for God’s providence.

Laing does a very good job at covering many facets of MK. He begins the first chapter with historical background information as well as an explanation of MK. From there he offers the reader some of the objections that have been given to MK. Following the objections, Laing explains certain implications of MK discussing MK implications on divine foreknowledge/freewill, soteriology, theodicy, Scripture, science/theology, the Biblical case for MK, and the existential outlook of MK. For being an introduction to the topic Laing has been able to cover a broad range of subjects.

In a nutshell (as if MK can be explained in a nutshell) MK comes from a place between two different types of divine knowledge. In the first place, there is a divine “natural knowledge” not to be confused with creaturely natural knowledge. According to Laing, “Natural knowledge refers to the truths God knows by his nature”(p.48). What this means is that God knows His creation by knowing Himself. He knows the possibilities in His creation by knowing what He can or cannot do. Some refer to this knowledge as the knowledge of “simple intelligence” or “necessary knowledge.” Secondly, Laing also speaks of divine free knowledge. Here he explains that “Free knowledge refers to the truths God knows by knowing his own will”(p.49). To put this simply, God knows what takes place in creation by knowing His plan for it.

Looking at these two types of divine knowledge we quickly notice there is no room for human autonomy. MK is something like the go-between of divine natural knowledge and divine free knowledge. MK is described as God’s pre-volitional (p.50) knowledge of counterfactual states of affairs within creation. Thus MK is divine knowledge of events under various conditions. Moreover, MK is not based on God’s nature or upon His free knowledge, but on the free decisions of created beings. Thus MK is based on God’s knowledge of autonomous decisions people will make. So if God posses MK His providence is unaffected by creaturely freedom.

The book itself is well written and very informative. Laing succeeded in condensing a complex topic into a very readable, instructive, and concise volume. While I do find fault in the argument (mostly because it presupposes human autonomy) I find this particular volume to be very informative and worth the read whether you are a proponent of MK or not. Some would think this book should only be for the academy. I think it is written for anyone who wants a better understanding of God’s providence. Well worth the read.

My personal rating 5 out of 5 stars.

Disclosure of Material Connection: I received this book free from the publisher. I was not required to write a positive review. The opinions I have expressed are my own. I am disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission’s 16 CFR, Part 255 : “Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising.”

[Jimmy Reagan · Rating 4 out of 5]

John Laing makes a strong case for the concept of middle knowledge as an explanation of the providence of God. In doing so he upholds both human freedom and divine sovereignty. No doubt he writes in a highly divisive category among theologians and will probably get some pushback, but in my view has done well in writing a detailed, scholarly examination with careful biblical and logical accuracy.

Though he uses a lot of down-to-earth examples, this work will still be tough for newcomers to the debate. The logical analysis has not an ounce of fluff and so I suspect this work will be more appreciated by those with some theological background.

In a lengthy introduction he discusses what the doctrine of providence is, he examines the various models of providence, and he addresses the assumptions that are in play in arriving at a position. This information is extremely helpful in grasping the theological landscape. In chapter 1 he defines the doctrine of middle knowledge. He introduces the specialized vocabulary involved and shows several examples.

Chapter 2 is on the grounding objection, which he feels is the most important element in explaining middle knowledge. In chapter 3 he reviews the circularity objection before getting into the more debated chapter 4 on divine foreknowledge and free will. By chapter 5, he enters the most explosive battleground when he addresses predestination and salvation in regard to these theories.

Chapter 6 addresses the problem of evil and how it impacts each of these viewpoints. There’s a chapter on inerrancy and inspiration and its effect on this debate as well as one on science and theology. Since middle knowledge comes from Molinism, he addresses the biblical evidence for it in chapter 9. Chapters 10 is a conclusion upholding middle knowledge.

I can see myself referring to this book in the future any time the subject of providence in these debated areas comes up. I imagine the reader’s viewpoint may impact the rating of this work by reviewers more than the work itself. Again, it may be a little too strong for students due to the subject, but that’s not to say it’s written too opaquely. It’s the subject that’s tough. For me, it will likely be my go-to book on this lively subject.

I received this book free from the publisher. I was not required to write a positive review. The opinions I have expressed are my own. I am disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission’s 16 CFR, Part 255.

[Lucas G. · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is a must read for anyone interested in Molinism. Actually, calling this book is a "must read" is a major understatement. Throughout this book Laing introduces the concept of Middle Knowledge - the central tenet of Molinism - and proceeds to successfully defend it with unparalleled philosophical and theological rigor.

Laing leaves no stone left unturned. He begins with a deep dive into the doctrine of God, focusing on the concepts of omniscience, omnipotence, human freedom, and divine freedom. From there he builds his case for Middle Knowledge. Next, Laing assesses and responds to various objections to Middle Knowledge, including the Grounding Objection and Circularity Objection.

After establishing that these objections are found wanting, Laing explores the depths of how Middle Knowledge engages with important philosophical dialogues, including divine foreknowledge and creaturely free will, predestination and salvation, the problem of evil, inerrancy and inspiration, and science and religion. In each case Laing explores how Middle Knowledge is both challenged by and makes sense of the key facets of these dialogues.

Laing then explores the biblical data and compares it to the tenets of both Open Theism and Calvinism. In both cases he finds these views to be largely challenged by scripture. In contrast, Middle Knowledge is able to make sense of scripture.

Bringing the book to a close, Laing explores how Middle Knowledge yields existential satisfaction. He does the by showing how Middle Knowledge sheds light in questions regarding unfulfilled prophecy, efficacy of prayer, discipleship, worship, ethics, and eschatology.

Ultimately, this book is the complete package. If you have a question about Molinism, Laing probably at least touches on it. He is also fair in acknowledging when opponents' criticisms are valid, and he is able to respond with both respect and force. This makes the book as enjoyable as it is insightful. So buy it. Read it. Wrestle with it. You won't regret it.

[Evan Minton · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent scholarly source on Molinism. He accurately represents his opponents, citing their own words and quotations describing their positions, and proceeds to show how Molinism prevails over these non-Molinist views (Process Theology, Open Theism, Divine Determinism, Simple Foreknowledge Arminianism) in areas such as (1) Reconciling meticulous divine providence with human free will, (2) Reconciling God's universal salvific will and resistible grace with his predestination of individuals to salvation, (3) The clear and numerous passages teaching perseverance of the saints with biblical passages warning us not to fall away, (4) How God inspired the content of the biblical text yet didn't dictate every word jotted down (as is clear from the fact that human idiosyncrasies are present in the text), (5) the problem of evil, and several other issues.

Laing's primary goal is to show that Molinism has superior explanatory power in wrestling with theological issues than all non-Molinist views, thereby making Molinism the preferable view for the Christian to take. In the semi-final chapter of the book, Laing does look at biblical evidence for the doctrine of middle knowledge and the system of Molinism, but from my reading, his primary concern is to demonstrate Molinism's explanatory superiority in dealing with issues such as human freedom with divine sovereignty, predestination and God's will for all to be saved, the tension between the security and warning passages, and others.

I will issue this one warning though; chapters 2, 3 and 4 are highly technical, but once you get to chapter 5 and beyond, the discussion becomes a lot less headache inducing and easier to understand and digest. Unfortunately, the first half of the book is probably the most important and it defends Molinism's coherence against the grounding and circularity objections and argues for the compatibility of foreknowledge and human freedom.

[Carl · Rating 4 out of 5]

I think the author presented a good case for defending Molinism and middle knowledge. He interacts with opposite views (mostly calvinism and open theism) and seems to fairly represent them. What caught my attention regarding this book is the number of subjects that are affected by Molinism. The author makes the case that Molinism best explains salvation and predestination, the problem of evil, inspiration and inerrancy, and even science. In the conclusion he also opens a door for Molinism's impact on unfulfilled prophecy, prayer, evangelism, discipleship, ethics, eschatology and end-of-life decisions (subjects that could be developed in some other books or researches).

Overall, it was a challenging read. It was my first book on the subject of Molinism and it was not an easy task. The reader might need some knowledge in philosophical theology to fully appreciate the book. For a beginner on the subject, Kenneth Keathley's book "Salvation and Sovereignty" seems to be a good place to start. Still, the perseverant layman reader could be able to go through most of the book (chapters 2-3-4 are the toughest ones).

I can't claim that the book convicted me of the truth of Molinism but i think he presented a good defense and that it could be true. The number of details presented were sometimes overwhelming and it was hard at the end of a chapter to know if the author's answers were satisfying. It seems to me that the author sometimes spent more time arguing against other views rather than clearly defending Molinism. It could be a lack of understand on my part. I'll go back to this book in the future to try to better comprehend the system. I think this book could become a go-to text on the subject of Molinism and be a good tool for researchers.

[Jeff · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is probably the best single volume written on middle knowledge and Molinism. It not only defines the doctrines and defends them from the most common objections, it then applies them to a range of theological areas, from salvation and theodicies to inspiration and even eschatology. A must read for anyone interested in this topic, and probably the standard by which subsequent books on Molinism will be measured.

[Brandon · Rating 5 out of 5]

An excellent investigation into the current theophilosophical discussions of Molinism, as well as the biblical evidence in support of this view.
This book makes a great companion to Kenneth Keathley's "Savlation & Sovereignty".