The crusade of Nicopolis

by Aziz Suryal Atiya

234 pages, Unknown Binding

First published January 1, 1978

About the author

Dr. Aziz Suryal Atiya (1898-1988) was a prominent scholar, writer, historian, and librarian whose expertise spanned the fields of the Crusades and Islamic and Coptic studies. Born in a small village in Egypt in 1898, Atiya was sent at the age of five to a school in Cairo. In 1927, at the age of 29, he received a diploma from the Higher Training College in Cairo and moved on to the University of Liverpool in England to continue his studies. In 1931 he earned a B.A. with first-class honors in Medieval and Modern History and transferred to the University of London, where he completed his Ph.D. in Arabic and Islamic Studies in 1933. By the time of the publication of his indispensable work on the Crusades, Atiya could also speak Egyptian, English, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Latin, and to a lesser extent, Spanish, Greek, Coptic, Turkish, Welsh, and Dutch. In 1936, Atiya began his career in publishing with The Crusade of the Nicopolis. His monumental study of the Crusades, The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages, was published in 1938. In the same year, the University of Liverpool awarded him a D. Litt. (Doctor of Letters). He was the first non-Briton from the Middle East ever to be granted that distinction. From 1935 to 1939, Atiya served as Docent and Honorary Professor of Medieval (including Oriental) History for Kahle's Orientalisches Seminar in Bonn, Germany. In 1939, however, he returned to Egypt and became First History Inspector of the Secondary Schools for the Ministry of Education. He also began a tenure as Professor of Medieval History at Cairo University, which lasted until 1942. In that year, he moved to Alexandria University, where he held a foundation chair in Medieval History until 1952, and served as Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Arts (1949-1950) and as Chairman of the History Department (1952-1954). During this period in Egypt, Atiya married, became the father of two children, and participated in many academic expeditions.
After an extensive lecture tour in the United States in 1950-1951, Atiya felt the desire to go abroad again. For the 1955-56 session, he served the University of Michigan as Medieval Academy Visiting Professor of Arabic Studies, and then accepted a position at the Union Theological Seminary and Columbia University. In 1957, he was Patten Visiting Professor and Lecturer at Indiana University. That year's lectures became his two books Crusade, Commerce and Culture, and Crusade Historiography and Bibliography. He then spent two years at Princeton as Professor of Arabic and Islamic History (1957-1958) and then as a member of the Institute for Advanced Study (1958-1959).
In 1959, Atiya came to the University of Utah as a Professor of Languages and History to build a complete center for the study of Arabic and Middle East cultures. From that year until his death in 1988, Atiya worked with the University of Utah, founding the Middle East Center and creating the Aziz S. Atiya Middle East Library, a division of the Marriott Library. In 1967 he was designated Distinguished Professor of History, and was further granted the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters. Brigham Young University at the same time made him an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), in recognition of some of his discoveries in the world of papyri.
During this time, Atiya continued to publish major academic works. In 1968, he published The History of Eastern Christianity and in 1969, he organized the publication of Catalogue Raisonné of the Arabic Manuscripts of Mount Sinai. At the time of his death, Atiya was preparing to publish a multi-volume Coptic Encyclopedia, which work was completed under the direction of his wife and assistant, Lola Atiya. Overall, Atiya published approximately twenty books, many of which are multi-volume projects, and his journal articles, book chapters, and encyclopedia articles appeared regularly over a period of thirty-five years. Further biographical data on Atiya is available throughout the body of the c

Reviews

[Logan Kneaskern · Rating 3 out of 5]

Dr. Aziz Suryal Atiya’s The Crusade of Nicopolis was published by Methuen & Co. Ltd. in 1934. Though this book is nearing ninety years in age, it remains the most recently published scholarly monograph which focuses exclusively on the “disastrous” siege of Nicopolis. In the preface the author states that this work is the last in a series detailing the “history of the crusade in the later middle ages” and he expresses the hope that “its publication may serve to strengthen the conception … that the medieval crusade survived St. Louis' death outside the walls of Tunis in I270, and that attempts to save the Holy Land persisted after the fall of Acre in 1291” [vii].

Atiya opens the work with a chapter entitled “Europe and the Crusade.” This chapter contextualizes the political, military, and religious situation in Europe prior to the crusade. The primary argument presented in this chapter is that, just prior to the crusade, both Europe and the Ottoman empire were in a relative state of peace. England and France were experiencing a lull in the Hundred Years War and the Spanish kingdoms had recently signed treaties ceasing hostilities with Iberian Muslims. Only the Italian city-states were, Atiya says, “sunk into a state of perpetual warfare and public strife” [10]. This peace, Atiya claims, contributed greatly to Christian Europe’s answer to the call for crusade.

The work’s second chapter, called “Propaganda,” outlines the influential writings of those who had traveled to the holy land and called for crusade after returning home. Atiya separates these writers into three categories: political, literary, and religious. This reviewer must question the usefulness of this division, however. The way in which Atiya characterizes the writings of each of these categories places an emphasis on the duty of Christendom to reclaim the kingdom which belonged to Jesus by birthright. This distinction therefore seems not to hold up to the reality of the sources.

The author dedicates a large portion of this chapter to the writings of Philippe de Mézières, a French propagandist who traveled to Jerusalem, served as chancellor of the kingdom of Cyprus, and eventually returned to France to tutor the future King Charles VI. Mézières’s ideals would have a profound effect on Charles, who was king at the time the Crusade of Nicopolis was called. It was likely due to Mézières that France was to field one of the largest forces for the crusade.

In the third chapter, “Preparations,” Atiya details the beginning steps of the crusade. He briefly mentions the papal bulls issued to declare the crusade, as well as detailing the peace negotiations that occurred between European powers (in particular England and France) and the taxes and forced loans imposed by the powers to fund the crusade. The author then embarks on a detailed discussion of the organization of the Franco-Burgundian army, leaning heavily on surviving Burgundian ordinances.
The fourth chapter is entitled “March of the Crusaders,” and traces the various paths different segments of the crusading army took on their way to Nicopolis. First, Atiya follows the crusaders’ paths to the Hungarian capital of Buda, which was set as their rendezvous point. Helpfully, a map is provided at the front of the chapter showing these proposed paths. While the main body of the Anglo-French force marched through the lands of the Holy Roman Empire, picking up crusaders from those lands as they passed by, a small French contingent was dispatched through northern Italy to issue a warning to the Duke of Milan not to interfere with the Genoese surrender to the French while their forces were on crusade, and also to reconnoiter with the Venetians, who were providing a substantial portion of the crusading fleet.

With their mission complete, this contingent marched north through the Alps to Bursa, where they met with the remaining French force as well as the forces provided by Hungary and her allies. From here they begin their march to Nicopolis, taking the cities of Widden and Rahova from the Turks along the way. In a somewhat teleological manner, Atiya also traces the foundations for the coming Christian defeat in this chapter. He mentions issues of discipline and factionalism within the crusader ranks, in particular the rejection of the Hungarian King’s defensive plan in favor of a direct march into Ottoman territory.

In chapter five the author gives an overview of the numbers and leadership of each of the opposing armies. Leaning heavily on the accounts of several near contemporary chroniclers, in particular Froissart, Atiya estimates the crusaders as having approximately 100,000 fighting men, opposed by about 110,000 Ottomans. In doing so he rejects the estimates of many previous historians as well as some chroniclers, who provided a great range of disparate numbers. Once again Atiya addresses the issue of discipline within the crusader ranks, contrasting problems in the Christian army with what he perceives as the well-disciplined nature of the Ottoman army. The author also discusses the leaders of the crusade, and how their differing ideas and inability to act in a coordinated manner would inevitably spell their doom in the face of the unified Ottoman force.

Chapter six provides a detailed account of the battle of Nicopolis itself. In particular, the author devotes a great deal of this chapter to the question of the French cavalry, and whether they remained mounted through the battle, dismounted in a planned and organized fashion, or were forced to dismount. Using accounts of the battle which mention a stampede of riderless horses passing through the rear lines from the French in the vanguard, Atiya comes to the conclusion that the French were forced to dismount in order to deal with a forest of wooden stakes which protected the Ottoman infantry. This stampede, Atiya argues, obviously would not have occurred had the French knights remained mounted, and had they planned to dismount then the horses would have been left in the care of valets who would have controlled their departure from the battlefield. Atiya then provides a brief summary of the French retreat, the desertion by many of the Hungarian forces, and King Sigismund of Hungary’s hard fought defeat.

The penultimate chapter discusses “The Aftermath” of the battle. In particular, the author addresses the return of Sigismund to Hungary, escorted by the Venetian fleet through Constantinople and Rhodes before finally being left in Ragusa, where he spent some time before traveling to Croatia and finally Hungary. The greater part of this chapter, however, is dedicated to the negotiations between the European powers and the Ottomans for the release of the captives. The captives spent nine months in captivity, and were only released upon the agreement of a ransom, one which would cost Europe 200,000 florins. 75,000 of these were paid in advance, with help from the crowns of France, Rhodes, Cyprus, Venice, and certain German princes. The majority of the cost, however, fell upon the Duke of Burgundy. The final chapter in the book is a conclusion, which simply brings together Atiya’s main points and summarizes his arguments.

The main body of the work is followed by ten appendices, several of which provide (in part or in full) some of the primary sources Atiya used for this work. These include the poems of Eustace Deschamps, Philippe de Mézières’ Nova Religio Passionis, extracts from the Bavyn manuscript, and the ordinance of the Duke of Burgundy. Additionally there is a list of members of the Order of Passion, a knightly order founded by Philippe de Mézières, comments on the date of the battle and the (at the time) current state of Nicopolis and its battlefield, the ransoms, and finally a discussion on the title of sultan. Endnotes, a bibliography, and an index may also be found at the end of the book.

Atiya calls upon a large number of sources for this work. Many of the more important primary sources have been mentioned previously, however, the author also provides a substantial bibliography of secondary sources. In many of the chapters of The Crusade of Nicopolis Atiya provides brief historiographical references to other authors' works, most typically to disagree with them. The most prominent among these are Die Schlacht bei Nikopolis by Alois Brauner (1875), La France en Orient au XIVe siecle. Expeditions du marechal Boucicaut by J. Delaville Le Roulx (1886), and Die SchHichten bei Nikopoli und Warna by I, Kohler (1882). In addition to these German and French sources, Atiya also cites sources in English, Italian, and Hungarian.

This reviewer's feelings on this monograph are conflicted. On the one hand the book summarizes the events leading up to, during, and following the crusade of Nicopolis neatly and succinctly. However, the age of the piece is clearly apparent. The author frequently quotes the primary source material without bothering to render it into modern English, leaving a reader unfamiliar with middle French or middle English at a loss. Additionally, the author espouses ideas and uses terms which were popular at the time but are archaic now, such as referring multiple times to the “Orthodox races.”
If there were a more recently published monograph on the Crusade of Nicopolis, then this book would be of little use to anyone, however, since there have been no works on the subject published since, and the information and conclusions displayed in this work are sound, then there are some that may find use in it. However, undergraduates and enthusiasts should stay away; only those already familiar with the historiographical process should engage with this book so as to avoid confusion.

[Fred Dameron · Rating 4 out of 5]

The battle of Nicopolis was the last of the major Crusader battles of the Crusading age. As such it should have a more prominent place in western European History, but it is practically forgotten. Why? Well one, the flower of French chivalry was either killed or captured by the Ottomans. Two this happened because the young hot heads of the French force failed to heed Sigmundsun of Hungary's warnings and plan of operation for the battle. Three many many European merchants lost their shirts not only to fund this Crusade against the Turk, but also to pay the ransoms. Those that were ransomed never paid the merchants or only paid a small amount of what they owed.

The Ottoman Turks don't talk about Nicopolis since shortly there after Tamerlane over ran the Ottomans. The Turks could never exploit the destruction of Western European Nobility and over run the whole of the Balkans. This has led to neither side wanting this fight to be remembered. But, the biggest aftershock of Nicopolis was when Constantine XI called on Western Europe to save the Byzantine in 1452: No Body answered. Leading to the final fall of the Byzantine Empire and the establishment of the Ottoman Turk on the western side of the Bosphorus Straits. A position that is still held today.

This is a great short work that details what happened and should be read by anyone who wants to better understand the how and why of the Byzantine fall and the Turk rise in May 1453. Important read.