Corruption: Its Nature, Causes and Functions

by Syed Hussein Alatas

CORRUPTION is a disease that can sweep through a society like a tidal wave, leaving in its wake a trail of negligence, lethargy, inefficiency and callous disregard of man’s inhumanity to man. What is it like to live in such a society? Why has it taken such strong root in so many countries? Is there no sense of outrage and shame against such a phenomenon among our elite? What can be done to stem the tide? Is it corruption as it is known in the West? These disturbing questions and more are answered in this book. Corruption in all its forms, bribery, nepotism and extortion, is shown for what it is – a major cause of the dehumanization and victimization of innocent people. The corrupt have no aspirations for the betterment of their societies. For this reason, all decent people must be gravely concerned with the problem and nurture the next generation to confront the corrupt and disrupt their way of life.Syed Hussein Alatas’ last position was Professor and Principal Research Fellow at the Institute of the Malay World and Civilization, National University of Malaysia. He obtained his PhD in the political and social sciences from the University of Amsterdam in 1963. He served as Professor and Head of the Department of Malay Studies at the National University of Singapore from 1967 until he took up the position of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Malaya from 1988 to 1991. He authored several books during his illustrious career, including The Myth of the Lazy Native ( Frank Cass, 1977), Intellectuals in Developing Societies ( Frank Cass, 1977), Its Nature, Causes and Functions ( Gower, 1990), and Corruption and the Destiny of Asia (Petaling Prentice Hall, 1999), in addition to numerous articles in scientific journals. He was awarded the Woodrow Wilson International Center fellowship in Washington D.C. in 1982-1983. Professor Alatas passed away on January 23rd 2007 at his home in Kuala Lumpur.

Genres: Sociology

221 pages, Hardcover

Published January 1, 1990

About the author

Syed Hussein Alatas (September 17, 1928 – January 23, 2007) was a Malaysian academician, sociologist, founder of social science organizations, and former politician. He was once Vice-Chancellor of the University of Malaya in the 1980s, and formed the Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan). Syed Hussein wrote several books on corruption, multi-racialism, imperialism, and intellectual captivity as part of the colonial, and post colonial, project, the most famous being The Myth of the Lazy Native.

Reviews

[Nuruddin Azri · Rating 4 out of 5]

Last year, when I was in Sarawak, one of my respected specialist asked me to use “warrant flight ticket”. This warrant can be used by every government servant who works in Sabah & Sarawak (or vice versa) once per year. Usually, the flight ticket to KLIA will be around RM 300 unless there are special public holiday like ‘Eid al-Fitr, Chinese New Year and New Year itself, where the price might spike up to RM 500 - RM 600.

After completing the necessary forms and receiving the receipt later on which is 2-4 weeks prior the departure, to my surprise, the receipt that I received was written RM 2400 (!) even though I already submitted the form two months earlier. When I check back the price of the flight, the ticket is still around RM 600 at that moment.

This is a pure example of corruption.

No wonder Alatas believes that corruption is the most serious problem plaguing the developing societies. Alatas wrote this book in 1990 under a grant from Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington D.C. He defines corruption as an abuse of trust in the interest of private gain.

After demonstrating the socio-historical background of corruption worldwide particularly in Roman Empire, Ancient Greece, Ancient Near East, Ancient China and contemporary Asia, Alatas then explained the causes of corruption, its effects and the ideology (as claimed by some ideologists) behind it.

Here, Alatas refutes Huntington who believes that some type and amount of corruption can lead to a process of modernisation and beneficial to development. According to Alatas, this is a myth as corruption itself establish criminology. It is a main weapon of organised crime for establishing control and freedom to operate.

Corruption also denigrate human being. This occur when the corruption functionalists have no empathy with the victim of corruption. They leave the corruption and victimization to continue because the victim is helpless. In their eyes, the victim is in the lower social orders who can do little for development.

This is how corruption metastasised to the fabric of society until it become a norm.

Alatas believes, in order to overcome this most parasitic, crippling and devastating exploitation that have inflicted man, a strongly motivated leader supported by men of insight and integrity is necessary. If there is no such leadership, the people should agitate against corruption via freedom of press. If press is weak, individuals must awaken the intellectual consciousness against corruption, withhold respect and confidence from the corrupt and a creative moral community must be made.

['Izzat Radzi · Rating 4 out of 5]

The writer argues that his study here is not extensive by the time of his writing (1986).

Dividing corruption into three deriving from other scholars as well, he put corruption into three : bribery, extortion and nepotism. He didn't really touched on nepotism in this work as he mentioned in the need of external and separate works.

Arguably some though make claims that corruption is beneficial, in terms of ensuring that the system works. He criticized this by putting into the table that corruption once escalated into the systemic level, presence in all level of political, economical and society life, it will in turn become destructive. This is in terms of delayed delivery, waste of labor and most worrisome is the failure to uphold the law and justice in everyday life.

There is also loss of national revenue from industries avoiding to pay taxes -thus affecting the pay of government services, which in turn makes them either, if they are honest men they'll get two jobs, and if they don't they will resort to bribery- although auditors on annual basis showed proofs of outflow of money. Here, he also includes discussion on the nationalization of firms to protect from foreign competition but is subjected to corruption as they policymakers have benefit of interests in these industry.

Taking first into accounts of India (education, politics), Indonesia (in Sukarno era) and Pakistan, he showed the worst possible level of corruption in countries Post-World War II.
He put a new discussion, coined as Corruption Industry, where at the worst level where everything hinge upon people being corrupt in a corrupt system, normal citizens and society will live in fear, insecure, and indifferent to looking for help in needs.

[Edy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Korupsi merupakan upaya sengaja melakukan kesalahan atau melalaikan tugas yang diketahui sebagai kewajiban atau tanpa hak menggunakan kekuasaan dengan tujuan memperoleh keuntungan yang sedikit banyak bersifat pribadi. (Brooks, 1910). Korupsi tersebut mempunyai ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:
1. Suatu pengkhianatan terhadap kepercayaan
2. Penipuan terhadap badan pemerintah, lembaga swasta atau masyarakat umumnya
3. Dengan sengaja melalaikan kepentingan umum demi kepentingan khusus
4. Dilakukan dengan rahasia, kecuali dalam keadaan dimana orang-orang yang berkuasa atau bawahannya menganggap tidak perlu
5. Melibatkan lebih dari satu pihak atau satu orang
6. Adanya kewajiban dan keuntungan bersama
7. Terpusatnya kegiatan korupsi pada mereka yang menghendaki keputusan yang pasti dan mereka yang dapat mempengaruhinya
8. Adanya usaha untuk menutupi perbuatan korup dalam bentuk pengesahan hukum
9. Melakukan fungsi ganda yang kontradiktif pada mereka yang melakukan korupsi. (Alatas 1968)

Alatas dalam buku ini membagi korupsi dalam beberapa jenis yakni:
• Transactive corruption yaitu korupsi yang didasari kesepakatan ti,bal balik antara pemberi dan penerima demi keuntungan keduabelah pihak dan dengan aktif diusahakan tercapainya keuntungan ini oleh kedua-duanya (biasanya anatara pemerintah dengan sector usaha/masyarakat).
• Extorsion corruption (korupsi yang memeras) dimana pihak pemberi dipaksa untuk menyuap guna mencegah kerugian yang sedang mengancam dirinya, kepentingannya atau hal-hal yang dihargainya.
• Korupsi defensive yaitu perilaku korban korupsi pemerasan atau korupsi untuk mempertahankan diri
• Korupsi Investif yaitu pemberian barang atau jasa tanpa ada pertalian langsung dengan keuntungan tertentu, selain keuntungan yang dibayangkan akan diperoleh di masa yang akan datang
• Korupsi perkerabatan/nepotisme yatu penunjukan yang tidak sah terhadap teman atau sanak keluarga untuk memegang jabatan pemerintahan atau tindakan yang mengutamakan kepada mereka dg cara yang bertentangan dengan norma dan peraturan yang berlaku
• Korupsi dukungan tindakan untuk memperkuat korupsi yang ada missal terror terhadap antivis anti korupsi.

Alatas lebih lanjut menuturkan bahwa dari sisi sejarah korupsi sudah berlangsung sejak jaman sebelum Masehi (bahkan ada sumber menyebutkan 1200 SM). Kasus korupsi ini terjadi di jaman sejarah Mesir, Babilonia, Ibrani, India, Cina, Yunani dan Romawi Kuno. Korupsi tersebut terjadi di kalangan pemerintahan, militer maupun lembaga peradilan. Meski demikian pada zaman tersebut sudah muncul berbagai aturan hukum maupun aksi untuk pemberantasan korupsi.

Terkait dengan korupsi yang berkembang di negara berkembang khususnya Asia paska kemerdekaan hingga saat ini, Alatas menilai bahwa faktor yang berpengaruh adalah rekrutmen pegawai yang banyak dan tidak disertai income yang memadai. Di sisi lain muncul keserakahan akibat budaya materialisme yang didukung oleh banyaknya peluang untuk melakukan korupsi seperti birokrasi yang kaku dan lemah kontrol sosial akibat budaya individualistik. Alatas menggaris bawahi bahwa koruptor atau homo venalis merupakan orang yang melanggar nilai moral (immoral) dan bukan produk budaya karena di dunia ini tidak ada masyarakat yang secara sadar mengembangbiakkan korupsi.

Dari sisi efek, korupsi menimbulkan berbagai efek yakni:
• Efek Metastatik yaitu korupsi cenderung makin menyebar dan membesar sehingga pejabat korup cenderung kelihatan lebih besar pengaruhnya dimata orang yang membutuhkannya.
• Efek Perkomplotan, yaitu korupsi cenderung membukakan jalan bagi korupsi lainnya atau menggurita, dimana sinergi antar kelompok akan menjadi semakin berkembang.
• Efek pemberian tertentu, yaitu efek yang ditimbulkan akibatn pemberian tertentu dan ini bisa beraneka ragam misalnya korupsi dalam pembelian kapal Tampomas mengakibatkan kualitas kapal buruk dan menimbulkan bencana kemanusiaan karena kapal tersebut tenggelam. Korupsi dalam pembuatan jalan mengakibatkan jalan cepat rusak sehingga akses masyarakat terganggu.
• Efek penghilangan potensi, yaitu korupsi yang digunakan untuk proyek2 penguasa sehingga anggaran pembangunan pelayanan publik terpinggirkan.
• Efek Transmutasi, yaitu munculnya pergeseran nilai dimana tokoh korup dianggap sebagai warga kehormatan atau Robinhood bagi sebagian kalangan.
• Efek Pamer, yaitu pamer hasil korupsi seperti perhiasan, rumah mwah dll sehingga korupsi seperti sesuatu yang menguntungkan dan positif.
• Efek Derivasi Kumulatif, yaitu efek kumulatif yang muncul dari tindakan-tindakan korupsi seperti korupsi yang dilakukan menteri akan banyak membawa efek bagi kebijakan dan progra di departemennya
• Efek Psikosentris yaitu munculnya ketagihan untuk melakukan tindakan korupsi ulang.
• Efek Klikmatis yaitu munculnya penyimpangan nilai dimana orang-orang yang berjuang secara jujur malah tidak memperoleh reward yang memadai.
• Efek Ekonomis Korupsi yaitu pemiskinan penduduk melalui penggerogotan ekonomi pemerintah.


Alatas sangat mengecam upaya-upaya dan pemikiran yang bersifat menetralisir nilai negatif korupsi. Beliau mengecam Samuel Hutington yang berpendapat bhwa korupsi oleh perusahaan nasional bisa dimaafkan demi mendorong modenrisasi di negara berkembang yang korup. Kecaman lain ditujukan kepada Robert Merton dan juga Nathaniel Leff yang melihat bahwa korupsi terkadang diperlukan bila pemerintahan lamban sehingga mereka menyebut korupsi sebagai “extra legal institution”. Kecaman Alatas ini muncul dari adanya kesadaran bahwa pelemahan upaya pemberantasan korupsi seringkali dimulai dari bahasa yang tranmutasi. Korupsi sebagai suatu tindakan melawan moral (immoral) tidak akan pernah bisa diterima apapun alasannya dan harus diberantas karena dampak negatifnya bagi masyarakat luas.

Dalam buku ini Alatas menggaris bawahi bahwa pemberantasan korupsi harus dilakukan dengan menciptakan SDM handal yang credibel dan juga didukung adanya penegakan aturan hukum secara adil dan konsisten. Untuk bisa menjalankan hal itu dibutuhkan adanya leadership yang visioner.

Secara umum buku ini sangat menarik dan masih kontekstual untuk meneropong kasus korupsi yang masih marak saat ini. Salah satu kesulitan yang saya temui adalah pembahasan bab “Ideologi Korupsi” yang agak berbau filsafat ilmu sehingga perlu mengerinyitkan dahi dan merenung untuk bisa mengunyah kata-kata yang tertuan dalam Bab tersebut.

[Nicholas · Rating 3 out of 5]

Have to say it's too descriptive for my own liking, though you can trace some of the themes brought up here by Alatas reappearing in works like Intellectuals in Developing Society (1977), such as the importance of ensuring the prevalence of moral rectitude and intellectual integrity. His idea to reform society (and to stem corruption) from the top through 'sacral personalities' that 'act as the centre of radiation of such rectitude values' (p. 58) is clearly envisioned with the incorruptible public intellectual in mind. His (truncated) political venture speaks to this as well.

A compendium of three parts, the reader can be excused for finding The Problem of Corruption to read like separate essays instead of a book. A product of its time, the book is successful in dispelling the notion that 'some corruption' is good for developing societies. Alatas clearly would have none of that, his warning stern and his disgust palpable in the pages. However, I find there are two limitations to the analytical depth of this book, rendering it more useful as an awakening discourse instead of a structural diagnosis. First, there is a lack of perspectives about how certain societies, such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, or the Nordic countries manage to overcome corruption. The book's emphasis on moral decline as a cause and effect of corruption creates a tautology in itself, as if a morally corrupt society will be corrupted, even if the author has explicitly eschewed culturalist explanations of corruption.

Second, although Alatas claimed that he wanted to uncover the 'cause and function' of corruption (p. 62), he spent little space analysing the latter, and whatever phenomenological accounts he provided of the 'corrupted' only spoke of their depravity. It is conceivable that we can recognise the function of corruption in societies with widespread corruption without endorsing the practice. For example, in Malaysia's case, corruption was tolerated because it was reckoned as facilitative to an ethnocratic redistributive state. The leakages were imagined as imperfect ways for the largesse of the state to be channelled to those in need (or those who felt entitled to it). This is where one find Fukuyama's effort to differentiate outright corruption from patronage and clientelism to be more illustrative of the phenomenon; that what we call 'corruption' often straddles, paradoxically, both formal structures of accountability (pork barrel politics) and informal practices and rituals of being ‘accountable’ to their exclusive base and clientele. The ‘money under the table’ depiction is both a fact and caricature of corruption.

The points above aren't intended to make corruption more palatable, of course. The outrage of Alatas against corruption is sorely missed as the problem doesn't seem to have subsided, with the high-level leaders in Malaysia he placed his hopes on now regularly discovered as the main protagonists of high corruption. But it remains the fact that societies, both developing and developed, have developed an appetite for corruption (though the mixture of money and politics is both more blatant and more sophisticated these days) as long as it is done for the right 'people' and 'reasons'. It seems the onslaught of authoritarian populism has convinced many that absolute power is needed to curb corruption absolutely, never mind what the aphorism says.

[Nurhaqif · Rating 5 out of 5]

Alatas was one of the thinkers who could write critically about corruption. This book cannot be said to be a comprehensive exposition on the problem of corruption, but it can broaden your views to see corruption not as the problem of an individual alone, but also as a social problem. Thus, the need for sociological studies on corruption is timely and the author was one of those who are willing to take the challenge and write on the sociological aspect of corruption. The examples given are lucid and satisfactory in that the author attempted to show the state of corruption in other countries such as India & Pakistan, while also not forgetting his homeland, namely, Malaysia. The examples are not meant to chastise or look down at other countries, but to learn from their experiences and bring forward our own formulation in order to combat corruption. Indeed, it is not an exaggeration to say that corruption is the source of all evil and to fight it, sociological aspect should not be left out in toto.

[Sarah Mohr · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent introduction to Alatas's thinking, including his standard of grounding his theories in the concrete examples of social realities.