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Black Nationalism: The Search for an Identity
One of the first studies of the organization, life and meaning of the Nation of Islam and, by extension, all Black Nationalist movements, this classic work dispels the still common conception that the movement functioned primarily for political purposes. By observing the daily life of its members, Essien-Udom demonstrates that the Nation of Islam served primarily as a means for poor urban blacks to attain a national identity, a sense of ethnic consciousness, and empowerment in a society that denied them these privileges. Black Nationalism continues to hold profound implications for our understanding of the appeal of Black Nationalism as an ideology and a political force.
"An excellent standard treatment of black nationalist belief and practice in the 50's."—Michael Eric Dyson, New York Times Book Review
"This is an absorbing exercise in first class reporting. . . . In the light of his scrupulous fairness, the book is another illustration of how the press prejudges a story. And most provocatively, Essien-Udom has emphasized that even after the current campaigns for wide-scale integration are won, there will be an even wider chasm between the 'liberated' Negro middle class and the rootless Negro poor."—Nat Hentoff, Commonweal
"An excellent standard treatment of black nationalist belief and practice in the 50's."—Michael Eric Dyson, New York Times Book Review
"This is an absorbing exercise in first class reporting. . . . In the light of his scrupulous fairness, the book is another illustration of how the press prejudges a story. And most provocatively, Essien-Udom has emphasized that even after the current campaigns for wide-scale integration are won, there will be an even wider chasm between the 'liberated' Negro middle class and the rootless Negro poor."—Nat Hentoff, Commonweal
- GenresRace
384 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1962
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June 6, 2026
A FAMOUS EARLY STUDY OF THE NATION OF ISLAM BY A NIGERIAN SCHOLAR
Essien Udosen Essien-Udom (1928-2002) was a Nigerian-born scholar, who taught at a variety of institutions, including Harvard, Brown University, the University of Ibadan, the University of Birmingham, and several institutions in Nigeria.
He wrote in the Preface to this 1962 book, “This book is about the phenomenon of black nationalism in the United States---the effort of thousands of Negroes to resolve for themselves this fundamental problem of identity and to provide a context for their moral, cultural, and material advancement within the limits set by the American scene. The book describes the ideology of black nationalism, its organizations leaders, and programs, focusing on the Nation of Islam---a Muslim movement led by Elijah Muhammad, It attempts to explain not only the behavior of the black nationalists, but also the meaning and significance of the movement for the participants and for the society as a whole.
“The study was made over a period of two years during which the writer participated continuously in the religious, social, and to a limited extent, business activities of the Muslims in Chicago. He attended two Muslim Annual Conventions in Chicago and interviewed ministers and lay Muslims from other cities on many occasions. He observed the meetings of other black nationalist organizations in Chicago and New York City, and discussed their objectives and programs with members. He learned the ‘ways’ of the Negro lower class in Chicago’s Black Belt…
“The method of study consisted primarily of observation and informal discussions with [Elijah] Muhammad, his officers, and followers in Chicago… [The writer] studied the publications of the movement, including some earlier literature which is kept under lock and key at the University of Islam or which was lent to him by the Muslims… Ministe Malcolm X of the New York Temple… proved to be of great assistance concerning the ideological questions and administrative problems posed by the movement…
“A questionnaire aimed at securing personal data on members [was distributed]. The Muslims, apparently directed by the officers of the Temple, failed to respond. Consequently, 500 copies of a 12-page questionnaire prepared at considerable expense were utterly wasted… The difficulty of studying the group lies partly in its lack of appreciation of the ‘scientific’ value of the information they would provide. Partly, it lies in their deep-seated suspicion of the outsider. The Muslims’ sense of persecution and fear of the so-called ‘enemy’ thus makes their cooperation very difficult to secure.” (Pg. 9-11)
He reports, “In the early1930s, the Nation of Islam was led by Prophet W.D. Fard, who is said to have come from Arabia. His organization first concentrated on Detroit Negroes and gained an estimated membership of 8,000 during the critical years of the depression. Late in 1933 he disappeared and Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the movement. Prophet Fard is acknowledged … as the Madhi, He is ‘Allah in the Person of Master Fard Muhammad.’ (The Madhi occupies the same position of Messiahship in Islam as … Christ in Christianity.)… Fard’s initial success in Detroit … was not matched … by comparable successes in any other large city. In fact, in 1942, when Muhammad and his followers were indicted and imprisoned for violations of the Selective Service Act, the total membership… came to only a few hundred… Today, it is estimated at a quarter of a million…
“Elijah Muhammad claims that … Prophet Fard explained to him the history and significance of the ‘Black Nation’… as well as the ‘impending’ destruction of the Caucasian race… and the final overthrow of white rule over the black peoples. Furthermore, Allah revealed to him that the United States would be destroyed in 1970. After this apocalypse, the … entire world population of the ‘black, brown, yellow, and red’ races would emerge as the sole ruler of the world under Allah’s … righteous guidance. The Nation of Islam, however… is a chosen people within the Black Nation… in practice and for the time being it is confined to the followers of Elijah Muhammad.” (Pg. 19-20)
He explains, “Noble Drew Ali… in 1913 founded the first Moorish-American Science Temple in Newark… on … March 15, 1929, Drew Ali was arrested… He was eventually released on bond, but … a few weeks later he died under mysterious circumstances…. For some time, W.D. Fard assumed leadership of the Moorish movement… Fard claimed he was the reincarnation of Noble Dew Ali. By 1930, a permanent split developed in the movement … Malcolm x and other leaders… have emphatically denied any past connection to … with Noble Drew Ali’s Moorish-American Science Temple.” (Pg. 46-48)
Of Elijah Muhammad’s ownership of several expensive vehicles, he explained, “The reason I drive a Cadillac is obvious. Negroes place a high value on things like this. Personally, I would prefer any little old car that would take me places. But if I did so, Negroes would begin to say ‘Islam made him poor.’ On the contrary, they can see for themselves that Islam doesn’t make one poor.” (Pg. 88-89)
He reports, “According to Muhammad, the black man originally inhabited the moon. People were known as ‘people of the moon.’ He claims that there are in Africa today ‘some tribes who still refer to themselves as people of the moon.’” (Pg. 148)
He explains their teaching, “The Caucasians were not the original inhabitants of the earth, but were ‘grafted’ from the black people. God did not create all humanity. The white race is the product of the weakness of the Black Nation… Yakub, the black scientist… is the father of the Caucasian race… Contrasted with the Original Man (the so-called Negroes) the white is inferior physically and mentally… Black people brought civilization to mankind before the Caucasian race was created.” (Pg. 150-151)
He states, “The Chicago Temple now owns and operates nearly fifteen businesses… These businesses are small enterprises. The Muslims claim that they are continually expanding and that the Messenger contemplates eventually moving into industrial production, but the Muslims obviously do not have the capital for a large-scale industrial venture.” (Pg. 185) “The Muslims have attempted during 1959-1961 to publish five newspapers and magazines… The first four have been discontinued and only one, ‘Mr. Muhammad Speaks’ … pays for itself.” (Pg. 185-186)
He notes, “Many Negroes visit the Temple of Islam because they were invited by a Muslim friend or ‘missionary’ … but few join the Nation or remain in it… An officer in Chicago stated that although about 10% of visitors … express the desire to join, only about 2% fulfill the requirements for membership… We suppose… that the turnover rate of new members is very high.” (Pg. 201)
He points out, “Theoretically, black people---and all red, yellow, or brown peoples---are eligible for membership in the Nation of Islam. In practice, however, only American Negroes are members. .. Students from the Middle East have sought to attend Temple meetings but were excluded… An officer of the Temple explains that their exclusion has nothing to do with race but that it is done because ‘they are already familiar with Islam… The Messenger … feels that some of the Eastern Moslems residing in this country have forsaken the teachings of Islam.” (Pg. 203-204)
He explains, “The concept of ‘return to our own kind’ is frequently employed by Muhammad. This means the spiritual identification of the members of the Nation with the ‘Islamic’ world and with other non-Caucasian peoples. In a sense, therefore, acceptance of Islam as a religion of black people is a symbolic ‘return to our own kind.’” (Pg. 285)
He reports that ‘Muhammad is deeply concerned about “fighting, cutting, shooting and killing” in the Negro ghettos… among whites, Negroes seem to be on their best behavior… But among their own… that’s when the butting and cutting, shooting and looting takes place… they wreak their pent-up original dislike of whites on those of their own blood, color, and bone.’” (Pg. 316)
This is a pathbreaking study of the early days of the Nation of Islam, that will be of great interest to those studying its history.
Essien Udosen Essien-Udom (1928-2002) was a Nigerian-born scholar, who taught at a variety of institutions, including Harvard, Brown University, the University of Ibadan, the University of Birmingham, and several institutions in Nigeria.
He wrote in the Preface to this 1962 book, “This book is about the phenomenon of black nationalism in the United States---the effort of thousands of Negroes to resolve for themselves this fundamental problem of identity and to provide a context for their moral, cultural, and material advancement within the limits set by the American scene. The book describes the ideology of black nationalism, its organizations leaders, and programs, focusing on the Nation of Islam---a Muslim movement led by Elijah Muhammad, It attempts to explain not only the behavior of the black nationalists, but also the meaning and significance of the movement for the participants and for the society as a whole.
“The study was made over a period of two years during which the writer participated continuously in the religious, social, and to a limited extent, business activities of the Muslims in Chicago. He attended two Muslim Annual Conventions in Chicago and interviewed ministers and lay Muslims from other cities on many occasions. He observed the meetings of other black nationalist organizations in Chicago and New York City, and discussed their objectives and programs with members. He learned the ‘ways’ of the Negro lower class in Chicago’s Black Belt…
“The method of study consisted primarily of observation and informal discussions with [Elijah] Muhammad, his officers, and followers in Chicago… [The writer] studied the publications of the movement, including some earlier literature which is kept under lock and key at the University of Islam or which was lent to him by the Muslims… Ministe Malcolm X of the New York Temple… proved to be of great assistance concerning the ideological questions and administrative problems posed by the movement…
“A questionnaire aimed at securing personal data on members [was distributed]. The Muslims, apparently directed by the officers of the Temple, failed to respond. Consequently, 500 copies of a 12-page questionnaire prepared at considerable expense were utterly wasted… The difficulty of studying the group lies partly in its lack of appreciation of the ‘scientific’ value of the information they would provide. Partly, it lies in their deep-seated suspicion of the outsider. The Muslims’ sense of persecution and fear of the so-called ‘enemy’ thus makes their cooperation very difficult to secure.” (Pg. 9-11)
He reports, “In the early1930s, the Nation of Islam was led by Prophet W.D. Fard, who is said to have come from Arabia. His organization first concentrated on Detroit Negroes and gained an estimated membership of 8,000 during the critical years of the depression. Late in 1933 he disappeared and Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the movement. Prophet Fard is acknowledged … as the Madhi, He is ‘Allah in the Person of Master Fard Muhammad.’ (The Madhi occupies the same position of Messiahship in Islam as … Christ in Christianity.)… Fard’s initial success in Detroit … was not matched … by comparable successes in any other large city. In fact, in 1942, when Muhammad and his followers were indicted and imprisoned for violations of the Selective Service Act, the total membership… came to only a few hundred… Today, it is estimated at a quarter of a million…
“Elijah Muhammad claims that … Prophet Fard explained to him the history and significance of the ‘Black Nation’… as well as the ‘impending’ destruction of the Caucasian race… and the final overthrow of white rule over the black peoples. Furthermore, Allah revealed to him that the United States would be destroyed in 1970. After this apocalypse, the … entire world population of the ‘black, brown, yellow, and red’ races would emerge as the sole ruler of the world under Allah’s … righteous guidance. The Nation of Islam, however… is a chosen people within the Black Nation… in practice and for the time being it is confined to the followers of Elijah Muhammad.” (Pg. 19-20)
He explains, “Noble Drew Ali… in 1913 founded the first Moorish-American Science Temple in Newark… on … March 15, 1929, Drew Ali was arrested… He was eventually released on bond, but … a few weeks later he died under mysterious circumstances…. For some time, W.D. Fard assumed leadership of the Moorish movement… Fard claimed he was the reincarnation of Noble Dew Ali. By 1930, a permanent split developed in the movement … Malcolm x and other leaders… have emphatically denied any past connection to … with Noble Drew Ali’s Moorish-American Science Temple.” (Pg. 46-48)
Of Elijah Muhammad’s ownership of several expensive vehicles, he explained, “The reason I drive a Cadillac is obvious. Negroes place a high value on things like this. Personally, I would prefer any little old car that would take me places. But if I did so, Negroes would begin to say ‘Islam made him poor.’ On the contrary, they can see for themselves that Islam doesn’t make one poor.” (Pg. 88-89)
He reports, “According to Muhammad, the black man originally inhabited the moon. People were known as ‘people of the moon.’ He claims that there are in Africa today ‘some tribes who still refer to themselves as people of the moon.’” (Pg. 148)
He explains their teaching, “The Caucasians were not the original inhabitants of the earth, but were ‘grafted’ from the black people. God did not create all humanity. The white race is the product of the weakness of the Black Nation… Yakub, the black scientist… is the father of the Caucasian race… Contrasted with the Original Man (the so-called Negroes) the white is inferior physically and mentally… Black people brought civilization to mankind before the Caucasian race was created.” (Pg. 150-151)
He states, “The Chicago Temple now owns and operates nearly fifteen businesses… These businesses are small enterprises. The Muslims claim that they are continually expanding and that the Messenger contemplates eventually moving into industrial production, but the Muslims obviously do not have the capital for a large-scale industrial venture.” (Pg. 185) “The Muslims have attempted during 1959-1961 to publish five newspapers and magazines… The first four have been discontinued and only one, ‘Mr. Muhammad Speaks’ … pays for itself.” (Pg. 185-186)
He notes, “Many Negroes visit the Temple of Islam because they were invited by a Muslim friend or ‘missionary’ … but few join the Nation or remain in it… An officer in Chicago stated that although about 10% of visitors … express the desire to join, only about 2% fulfill the requirements for membership… We suppose… that the turnover rate of new members is very high.” (Pg. 201)
He points out, “Theoretically, black people---and all red, yellow, or brown peoples---are eligible for membership in the Nation of Islam. In practice, however, only American Negroes are members. .. Students from the Middle East have sought to attend Temple meetings but were excluded… An officer of the Temple explains that their exclusion has nothing to do with race but that it is done because ‘they are already familiar with Islam… The Messenger … feels that some of the Eastern Moslems residing in this country have forsaken the teachings of Islam.” (Pg. 203-204)
He explains, “The concept of ‘return to our own kind’ is frequently employed by Muhammad. This means the spiritual identification of the members of the Nation with the ‘Islamic’ world and with other non-Caucasian peoples. In a sense, therefore, acceptance of Islam as a religion of black people is a symbolic ‘return to our own kind.’” (Pg. 285)
He reports that ‘Muhammad is deeply concerned about “fighting, cutting, shooting and killing” in the Negro ghettos… among whites, Negroes seem to be on their best behavior… But among their own… that’s when the butting and cutting, shooting and looting takes place… they wreak their pent-up original dislike of whites on those of their own blood, color, and bone.’” (Pg. 316)
This is a pathbreaking study of the early days of the Nation of Islam, that will be of great interest to those studying its history.
February 12, 2018
E.U. Essien-Udom's book is a pioneering study of the Nation of Islam published in 1962. The author is overall sympathetic and, though he appears hostile at times, is fairly critical without belaboring the point. Essien-Udom had exclusive access to the Nation's members, including at times the leader or 'messenger' Elijah Muhammad, which gave the author particular insight into the general and day to day ongoings of the origination. One interesting moment was when a Mr. Dawud's was waging a campaign against Muhammad and the Nation. The author was in the presence of Muhammad the day the article "White man is God for cult of Islam" was published; Muhammad and the Nation responded by buying up the newspaper and publicly burning it.
I personally was looking for a general history of the Nation and specifically for information regarding Malcolm X's early participation in the Nation. As a general introduction to the Nation--its structure, belief system politically and religiously, finances, and ideology, etc--this is an excellent book. It is also appealing given the authors attempt to engage with the general membership and not just Muahmmad and the leadership. In terms of Malcolm X, he is mentioned, but there is no extensive discussion of his role.
I personally was looking for a general history of the Nation and specifically for information regarding Malcolm X's early participation in the Nation. As a general introduction to the Nation--its structure, belief system politically and religiously, finances, and ideology, etc--this is an excellent book. It is also appealing given the authors attempt to engage with the general membership and not just Muahmmad and the leadership. In terms of Malcolm X, he is mentioned, but there is no extensive discussion of his role.
April 27, 2018
Good introduction to the Nation of Islam but it’s outdated.
January 11, 2022
Now dated, but still extremely thorough study of the Nation. Good reference text as well on Black nationalist tendencies in the late 50s early 60s.
Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews