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Jewish Bankers and the Holy See: From the Thirteenth to the Seventeenth Century (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization) (English and French Edition) by Leon Poliakov

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The Jewish community in Rome is the oldest in Europe, the only one to have existed continuously for over 2,000 years. This detailed study of the Jewish banking community in Italy is therefore of special value and interest. Poliakov s classic account of the rise and fall of the Jewish bankers is at the same time the story of medieval finance in general, its decline, and the birth of modern finance. The author traces the economic and theological implication of each stage in the ambiguous relationship that developed between the Jewish money trade and the Holy See. He shows that the protection enjoyed by the Jews from the Holy See had not only theological, but also economic roots. The study ends with an account of the introduction of modern, capitalist techniques and of the consequent inevitable decline of the Jewish money trade.

Hardcover

First published January 1, 1967

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About the author

Léon Poliakov

60 books12 followers
Léon Poliakov (Russian: Лев Поляков) was a French historian, cofounder of the Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation, and director of research at the National Centre for Scientific Research (Centre national de la recherche scientifique).

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Profile Image for Josh Pendergrass.
154 reviews11 followers
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January 7, 2026
I found a copy of this at a bookstore in the East Village and it caught my eye because I've recently been thinking about how there seems to be a very strong correlation between the level of antisemitism in any society and the functioning of that society's financial economy. When the money economy breaks down (or ceases to function entirely), antisemitism begins to rise and social breakdown leads to a scapegoating of the Jews. The examples of this are everywhere in European history, the holocaust and WWII being the most obvious.

What exactly is money? How does it work as a measure of value, and how are we able to rely on it as a sort of glue that allows our societies to function? Money works when the consciousness of a society is aligned in some way to allow it to work; when there is a level of trust within the society that allows everyone to all agree to use money as a store of value and a medium of exchange. There is always an element of magic involved in money. Money and the practice of money lending facilitate the growth of incredible, complex, and diverse societies; but in our attempts to control the world with money we are like the sorcerer's apprentice, playing with something we never fully understand (of course economists will never admit this).

All of the above is my own theorizing; the author is this book is much more academic, and hesitant to make connections that cannot be directly backed up. However his conclusion section seems to agree with my concerns about the connection between antisemitism and the history of money lending in Europe. Apparently he also wrote a multi-volume text on the history of Antisemitism, so his thoughts obviously lie in a similar place to mine.

The book is a historical overview of how the Catholic church gave dispensations which allowed Jews to practice money lending (at interest), especially in Italy, but in other parts of Europe as well. This lead to a symbiotic relationship between the church and the Jews. The practice of money lending at interest (also know as usury) offers many great benefits to any society. It allows for unprecedented economic growth. Money lending at interest is now essential to all modern finance. But the Church, and early Christian theologians knew that there were also great moral dangers in allowing the practice of usury. Debt is essentially a form of slavery, it puts us at odds with Jesus' contention in the sermon on the Mount that it is wrong to make promises for the future since the future is in God's control, not our own. Jewish doctrine also has prohibitions against usury, but only when practiced among Jews, so it is ok for Jews to lend at interest to non-Jews. So how is it that the Church allowed the Jews to practice money lending if it went against Church doctrine? This is because the Catholic Church and the Holy See were not just religious institutions, they were political as well. There was no way to deny the positive economic growth that came with money lending, so the Church came up with a number of theological arguments that stipulated that it was acceptable for Jews to practice money lending, even if it was morally wrong for Christians. This practice went on for centuries with varying tightening or loosening of allowance, depending on who the Pope and on local ordinances of different cities and their tolerance for money lending. This setup of allowing the Jews to practice money lending also them to keep their own identity as a separate religion in many cities in Italy.

My contention is that Jews, already outsiders due to their religious practices, were ripe for scapegoating whenever economic systems broke down, due to their history and association with the money trade in Europe.

But on an even broader level, it appears now that our entire global economy, built entirely upon financial lending at interest, is in danger of being beyond of our control. Money does not seem to be operating very well as a tool to help with growth and the facilitation of trade and social stability. As this global economy continues to fracture and breakdown in the future, we need to be careful not to look for scapegoats, whether it is the Jews, or someone else, because the financial economy is something that we are all wrapped up in, none of us is innocent. We have all reaped the benefits of what money lending and finance have brought to our society (incredible wealth and material abundance), we cannot place the blame for it's breakdown on anyone but ourselves.
Profile Image for Igor Gomes .
2 reviews1 follower
July 23, 2023
Léon Poliakov, estudioso da extensa epopéia do povo judeu, ilumina nesse livro um ponto particular dessa longa história focalizando o «comércio judaico de dinheiro na Itália». Ao examinar uma série de registros notariais do ghetto de Roma, que Fernand Braudel lhe havia indicado, Poliakov foi levado a estudar as atas da «Congregatio de usuris» fundada pelo Papa Clemente IX, em 1668, para regulamentar o comércio judaico de dinheiro. O historiador então retraçou as linhas gerais de uma verdadeira «instituição» medieval, qual seja, a «proteção» concedida pela Santa Sé aos banchieri judeus. O objeto da obra, pois, é a ascenção e o declínio dessa «instituição» – estudada por Poliakov em consonância aos aspectos teológicos e econômicos que influíram sobre ela.

A delimitação temporal do estudo atinente às relações entre os banqueiros judeus e a Santa Sé abrange o surgimento, o apogeu e a decadência da proteção do Vaticano aos banchieri. Ao fim do século XIII, os banqueiros judeus surgem no Ocidente. Realizam empréstimo em penhor, empréstimo a juros e, em linhas gerais, todas as operações bancárias. A perícia dos judeus italianos em finanças está de acordo com a orientação haláchica oferecida pelos rabinos da época.

A atividade dos banchieri também corresponde às teses dos teólogos cristãos que afirmam a tolerabilidade da usura, inobstante a reputada malícia que é conatural àquela atividade. A usura, pois, pode ser tolerada e até plenamente autorizada pelas autoridades política e eclesiástica, desde que praticada pelos judeus. A conjunção dos fatores econômico, político e teológico estabelece a «instituição» medieval da proteção da Santa Sé aos banqueiros judeus e delimita a sua forma: a atividade financeira dos banqueiros judeus condiz com as circunstâncias históricas do medievo porque é uma atividade reclamada pelo povo – especialmente pelas camadas mais pobres da população –, sendo desempenhada por não-cristãos.

A necessidade temporal do comércio de dinheiro e a capacidade financeira dos judeus de oferecer o serviço prefigura a extraordinária multiplicação dos bancos administrados por judeus. Poliakov estima que no princípio do século XVII podemos contar cerca de 500 bancos, que constituem uma verdadeira rede que abrange 130 cidades italianas. A partir da leitura da obra podemos focalizar que, em linhas gerais, a rede dos banchieri foi instituída e regulada pela Santa Sé.

O Vaticano é responsável pela emissão das licenças de estabelecimento dos bancos dirigidos pelos judeus. A Santa Sé concorreu, pois, para o desenvolvimento de uma rede de bancos dirigidos pelos «hostes perpetui» da religião cristã. Do mesmo modo que a emergência dos banchieri pressupôs o auxílio e tolerância da Igreja, o declínio da banca judaica – iniciado no século XVI – foi secundado pela ação eclesiástica. A importância das ordens mendicantes (franciscanos e dominicanos) concorreu para criar uma atmosfera anti-judaica na península itálica que se expressou em agitações populares e saques aos bancos. A questão da legitimidade do mútuo a juros é coadjuvada pelas pressões econômicas e sociais, que confluíram para o desenvolvimento da hostilidade entre cristãos e judeus. A questão dos empréstimo de dinheiro, analisada pela teologia cristã, traduz-se na criação dos mons pietatis pelos frades franciscanos. As vantagens obtidas pela população e pelos poderes temporais a partir da criação de uma instituição financeira sem fins lucrativos enseja uma concorrência violenta entre a banca judaica e os mons pietatis. A hostilidade atinge um grau paroxístico quando o Papa Paulo IV cria o guetto de Roma, golpe fatal aos banchieri judeus.

A criação do guetto romano evidencia o caráter conflitivo da relação entre a Igreja e os banchieri naquela circunstância histórica. No entanto, a criação de uma área espacial delimitada de modo exclusivo aos judeus não foi o único aspecto em que a clivagem entre a Santa Sé e o povo hebraico se apresentou. Os judeus são expulsos, de modo progressivo, dos territórios cristãos sob controle espanhol. Assim, o norte da Itália e a região de Nápoles foram gradualmente desjudaizadas pelo poder político na primeira metade do século XVI. Não havia então uma solução de continuidade para a questão da usura no âmbito das finanças. A partir da defecção dos judeus dos Estados cristãos os próprios locais assumem de forma plena a atividade financeira. Os cristãos, que nunca abandonaram a usura de modo integral, agora podem realizá-la sem as injunções que eram imputadas aos «hostes perpetui» da religião cristã.
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