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The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization
In this volume Mayo discusses the Hawthorne experiments, relating the findings about human relations within the Hawthorne plant to the social environment in the surrounding Chicago area. The Chicago School of Sociologists were studying aspects of social disorganization and this was a topic pioneered by Emile Durkheim.
204 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1933
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October 14, 2018
This book, first published in 1933 establishes Mayo’s legacy: the beginning of a human relations management approach to the management of industry. In this edition. F.J Roethlisberger’s introduction is a necessary and useful instrument for orienting the reader in a manner such that one can look at Mayo’s work holistically, drawing from the narrative of personal experience that Roethlisberger presents. It is apt to say with this work, Mayo established a tradition and discipline for industrial psychology, sociology and organizational behaviour.
Fatigue
Mayo begins this chapter by dismantling the myth that political remedies may be the solution to the prevalent industrial ills of the time, highlighting that the real challenge was the lack of a better understanding of human affairs. Recognizing this lack of knowledge of “the primary laws that govern human efficiency”, led to organized, scientific studies aiming to observe the conditions for sustained productivity in industrial environments. Here, Mayo points out a mistaken belief that “fatigue” was the only challenge to human productivity and that fatigue was of a simple nature. Mayo goes on to quote studies and organizations, through which we arrive that it is not as simple as it seems to be and the work-fatigue-remedy cycle may not be as linear as we have supposed. Instead, fatigue is a physiological condition that may turn pathological, and may be best defined as reduced capacity for doing work. He also sheds light on the fact that labour turnover finds a cause in fatigue. Mayo successfully highlights the difference in fatigue owing to temperature conditions, nature of work, level of training and skill- each of these variables being identified for the first time with respect to organizational working conditions, setting a precedent for organizational behaviour studies today.
What is Monotony?
In this highly interesting chapter preceding the detailed discussion on Hawthorne experiments, Mayo continues to cite physiological studies and anecdotal evidence to discuss monotony, its nature, variations with individual capacity and preferences for work. He begins from the understanding the physiologists identified a “steady state” as in important prerequisite for continued work. From here, he introduces the reader the concept of rest pauses, which may be two meanings: for the physiological, a rest from physical activity, and for repetitive work, a break from the main occupation without cessation of the work entirely. Research in these times identified that monotony, in addition to fatigue, contributes to interference in work and slowdown of productivity. Wyatt, as cited in this chapter says that work must change at intervals when payment is tied to productivity, whne work is compsedof self-contained tasks, operatives must work in compact group and suitable rests must be introduced in between phases of work. Mayo cites another study that accounts of emotional differences as factors impacting monotony and boredom. Finally, he cites a study that shows how “rest periods” improved productivity and reduced emotional turnover in an organization.
The Hawthorne Experiments
These highly popular experiments are a pioneering series of studies that organizational behaviour, industrial studies look at even today. Mayo begins by ringing to the notice of the reader that the human organism shifts between states of equilibrium, making it difficult to identify a science for handling humans efficiently, while also mentioning that it is impossible to change one human condition (variable) without affecting another. Mayo continues to detail the phases of the experiments that showed increased productivity and increased contentment of the worker, reduction in muscular fatigue, decrease in absences, increased eagerness to work and a permanent change in the worker’s inner equilibrium and mental attitude to work that remained stable despite external interferences, besides a better relationship with the supervisor who was no longer viewed as a “boss”.
Development of the Western Electric Enquiry
This chapter identifies “supervision” as one of the extremely important environmental variables of the worker. The series of interviews conducted were breakthroughs for both workers and the interviewers (supervisors), because they show how workers enjoyed being able to express themselves and supervisors were surprised, interested in improvement and somewhat unexpected observations were made which confirmed the response of the test-room respondent that quality of supervision has a strong impact on the performance of the worker. The tendency of workers to talk about topics of their interest and include personal judgements was pronounced and led supervisors to understand that opinions are not detachable. Mayo concludes by pointing out how this requires a greater study and a better understanding of the term “supervision” to substitute its diffuse meaning.
The Meaning of “Morale”
In the reading of this chapter, I have not been able to pinpoint Mayo’s definition of “morale”. He begins by pointing out how the experiments had created a sense of loyalty and faith. Then he expands on the premise that criticism of material conditions were justified by those of persons were not. The experimental observation of the young dissatisfied worker and her performance shows the natural tendency to exaggeration, distortion and obsession over personal circumstance in the absence of social comradeship. Mayo highlights that the locus of industrial maladjustment is centred on “person-work-company policy”, and stresses that there must be a way to communicate it down-the line- so that workers do not feel frustrated. In summary, this chapter dives most deeply into the personal circumstance, disability and state of the worker for his welfare and for improved performance.
The Reaction of Industry upon the Social Order
In this chapter Mayo addresses the question of whether or not modern industrial society predispose workers to obsessive response, where he cites a study of delinquency in Chicago which arrives at the conclusion that industrial life has led to what Durkheim termed as “anomie”, higher disorganization and weakening of social integration. However, Mayo points out that this does not encompass the state of affairs entirely and points out that political, economic and educational systems also have a role in the present disturbance of communal integrity.
Theories of the Government and the Social Order
Mayo turns his attention to the sphere of politics in this chapter. It is interesting to observe how he weaves the ideologies of Tawney, Durkheim and prominent thinkers to raise points on how the political system should function in relation to the economic system and the individual. After elaborating various viewpoints and dichotomies, the central idea that he puts forward is that there has been an erosion of the “integration and solidarity of society”, such that there has been a decline in the desire and capacity of individuals to work together.
The Problem of the Administrator
In this final chapter, Mayo turns his attention to an important crisis he observes in his environment- that of an efficient administrator. He highlights how universities have not yet begun to address this problem, how the administrative elite of the day are actually the elite of yesterday, trying to attend to new problems with old tools. Mayo lists one very important reason for the need of the new administrator: the absence of the non-logic social code, which urgently needs to be replaced by a non-social, logical code of understanding for the resolution of larger challenges of the industrial society. As a young reader today, I find that May’s ideas in this chapter continue to hold relevance today as we continue in an era of disruption and lack of well-trained administrative elite, American society even more so to Mayo’s (perhaps) grief.
Fatigue
Mayo begins this chapter by dismantling the myth that political remedies may be the solution to the prevalent industrial ills of the time, highlighting that the real challenge was the lack of a better understanding of human affairs. Recognizing this lack of knowledge of “the primary laws that govern human efficiency”, led to organized, scientific studies aiming to observe the conditions for sustained productivity in industrial environments. Here, Mayo points out a mistaken belief that “fatigue” was the only challenge to human productivity and that fatigue was of a simple nature. Mayo goes on to quote studies and organizations, through which we arrive that it is not as simple as it seems to be and the work-fatigue-remedy cycle may not be as linear as we have supposed. Instead, fatigue is a physiological condition that may turn pathological, and may be best defined as reduced capacity for doing work. He also sheds light on the fact that labour turnover finds a cause in fatigue. Mayo successfully highlights the difference in fatigue owing to temperature conditions, nature of work, level of training and skill- each of these variables being identified for the first time with respect to organizational working conditions, setting a precedent for organizational behaviour studies today.
What is Monotony?
In this highly interesting chapter preceding the detailed discussion on Hawthorne experiments, Mayo continues to cite physiological studies and anecdotal evidence to discuss monotony, its nature, variations with individual capacity and preferences for work. He begins from the understanding the physiologists identified a “steady state” as in important prerequisite for continued work. From here, he introduces the reader the concept of rest pauses, which may be two meanings: for the physiological, a rest from physical activity, and for repetitive work, a break from the main occupation without cessation of the work entirely. Research in these times identified that monotony, in addition to fatigue, contributes to interference in work and slowdown of productivity. Wyatt, as cited in this chapter says that work must change at intervals when payment is tied to productivity, whne work is compsedof self-contained tasks, operatives must work in compact group and suitable rests must be introduced in between phases of work. Mayo cites another study that accounts of emotional differences as factors impacting monotony and boredom. Finally, he cites a study that shows how “rest periods” improved productivity and reduced emotional turnover in an organization.
The Hawthorne Experiments
These highly popular experiments are a pioneering series of studies that organizational behaviour, industrial studies look at even today. Mayo begins by ringing to the notice of the reader that the human organism shifts between states of equilibrium, making it difficult to identify a science for handling humans efficiently, while also mentioning that it is impossible to change one human condition (variable) without affecting another. Mayo continues to detail the phases of the experiments that showed increased productivity and increased contentment of the worker, reduction in muscular fatigue, decrease in absences, increased eagerness to work and a permanent change in the worker’s inner equilibrium and mental attitude to work that remained stable despite external interferences, besides a better relationship with the supervisor who was no longer viewed as a “boss”.
Development of the Western Electric Enquiry
This chapter identifies “supervision” as one of the extremely important environmental variables of the worker. The series of interviews conducted were breakthroughs for both workers and the interviewers (supervisors), because they show how workers enjoyed being able to express themselves and supervisors were surprised, interested in improvement and somewhat unexpected observations were made which confirmed the response of the test-room respondent that quality of supervision has a strong impact on the performance of the worker. The tendency of workers to talk about topics of their interest and include personal judgements was pronounced and led supervisors to understand that opinions are not detachable. Mayo concludes by pointing out how this requires a greater study and a better understanding of the term “supervision” to substitute its diffuse meaning.
The Meaning of “Morale”
In the reading of this chapter, I have not been able to pinpoint Mayo’s definition of “morale”. He begins by pointing out how the experiments had created a sense of loyalty and faith. Then he expands on the premise that criticism of material conditions were justified by those of persons were not. The experimental observation of the young dissatisfied worker and her performance shows the natural tendency to exaggeration, distortion and obsession over personal circumstance in the absence of social comradeship. Mayo highlights that the locus of industrial maladjustment is centred on “person-work-company policy”, and stresses that there must be a way to communicate it down-the line- so that workers do not feel frustrated. In summary, this chapter dives most deeply into the personal circumstance, disability and state of the worker for his welfare and for improved performance.
The Reaction of Industry upon the Social Order
In this chapter Mayo addresses the question of whether or not modern industrial society predispose workers to obsessive response, where he cites a study of delinquency in Chicago which arrives at the conclusion that industrial life has led to what Durkheim termed as “anomie”, higher disorganization and weakening of social integration. However, Mayo points out that this does not encompass the state of affairs entirely and points out that political, economic and educational systems also have a role in the present disturbance of communal integrity.
Theories of the Government and the Social Order
Mayo turns his attention to the sphere of politics in this chapter. It is interesting to observe how he weaves the ideologies of Tawney, Durkheim and prominent thinkers to raise points on how the political system should function in relation to the economic system and the individual. After elaborating various viewpoints and dichotomies, the central idea that he puts forward is that there has been an erosion of the “integration and solidarity of society”, such that there has been a decline in the desire and capacity of individuals to work together.
The Problem of the Administrator
In this final chapter, Mayo turns his attention to an important crisis he observes in his environment- that of an efficient administrator. He highlights how universities have not yet begun to address this problem, how the administrative elite of the day are actually the elite of yesterday, trying to attend to new problems with old tools. Mayo lists one very important reason for the need of the new administrator: the absence of the non-logic social code, which urgently needs to be replaced by a non-social, logical code of understanding for the resolution of larger challenges of the industrial society. As a young reader today, I find that May’s ideas in this chapter continue to hold relevance today as we continue in an era of disruption and lack of well-trained administrative elite, American society even more so to Mayo’s (perhaps) grief.
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