The conuco system, wrote one scholar, was “an imitation by man of tropical nature, a many-storied cultural vegetation, producing at all levels, from tubers underground through the understory of pigeon peas… a second story of cacao and bananas, to a canopy of fruit trees and palms… an assemblage [that] makes full use of light, moisture, and soil.” Three centuries after the Spanish conquest, a version of the conuco was still in use—not by the Taínos (of whom by then there were relatively few) but by enslaved Africans, who had come to represent a large share of the island’s population and its
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