There is no doubt that Semmelweis’s hand-washing practice had dramatic real-world consequences—so it might seem surprising that physicians nonetheless conformed rather than try the promising new practice. But notice that the physicians themselves were not the ones at risk of death. Neither were their friends, relatives, or members of their social circles, as the patients in their clinics were generally poor. If the consequences of their choices were more personal, they might have ignored the reputational risks of admitting that their hands were unclean and listened to Semmelweis. Likewise, if
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