Under the usual understanding of contractual obligations—at least in the German lands, where most such contracts were made—this failure was considered Betrügerei, a word usually translated as “fraud.” But these practitioners were not necessarily dishonest. This category of crime referred generally to promising anything that could not be delivered—in short, defrauding the ruler—and such a crime was punishable by death. The execution of failed chymists is a predominantly German phenomenon; we have but few records of such executions in France or England.
