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Symposium on Consciousness
182 pages, Paperback
First published January 22, 1976
About the author
Robert Ornstein
28 books101 followersPsychologist Robert Ornstein's wide-ranging and multidisciplinary work has won him awards from more than a dozen organizations, including the American Psychological Association and UNESCO. His pioneering research on the bilateral specialization of the brain has done much to advance our understanding of how we think.
He received his bachelor's degree in psychology from City University of New York in 1964 and his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1968. His doctoral thesis won the American Institutes for Research Creative Talent Award and was published immediately as a book, On the Experience of Time.
Since then he has written or co-written more than twenty other books on the nature of the human mind and brain and their relationship to thought, health and individual and social consciousness, which have sold over six million copies and been translated into a dozen other languages. His textbooks have been used in more than 20,000 university classes.
Dr. Ornstein has taught at the University of California Medical Center and Stanford University, and he has lectured at more than 200 colleges and universities in the U.S. and overseas. He is the president and founder of the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK), an educational nonprofit dedicated to bringing important discoveries concerning human nature to the general public.
Among his many honors and awards are the UNESCO award for Best Contribution to Psychology and the American Psychological Foundation Media Award "for increasing the public understanding of psychology."
He received his bachelor's degree in psychology from City University of New York in 1964 and his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1968. His doctoral thesis won the American Institutes for Research Creative Talent Award and was published immediately as a book, On the Experience of Time.
Since then he has written or co-written more than twenty other books on the nature of the human mind and brain and their relationship to thought, health and individual and social consciousness, which have sold over six million copies and been translated into a dozen other languages. His textbooks have been used in more than 20,000 university classes.
Dr. Ornstein has taught at the University of California Medical Center and Stanford University, and he has lectured at more than 200 colleges and universities in the U.S. and overseas. He is the president and founder of the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK), an educational nonprofit dedicated to bringing important discoveries concerning human nature to the general public.
Among his many honors and awards are the UNESCO award for Best Contribution to Psychology and the American Psychological Foundation Media Award "for increasing the public understanding of psychology."
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November 5, 2025
A 1974 SYMPOSIUM BY A VARIETY OF PRESENTERS
This symposium was presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in February 1974.
Co-presenter Philip Lee wrote in the first chapter, “More than 800 people attended the Symposium on Consciousness … making it one of the largest gatherings at the meeting. This interest, in some ways unanticipated, was a reflection of the growing concern of social, behavioral, and medical scientists, as well as of the general public, about the development of a more adequate and comprehensive understanding of human consciousness. This symposium was not the first effort of the AAAS to explore human consciousness. It is particularly appropriate for this interdisciplinary scientific organization to engage in these discussions. In the last decade, a variety of disciplines, including bioengineering, physics, anthropology, psychology, psychiatry, neurology, neurophysiology, and biochemistry, have been in the forefront of research that has increased our knowledge of human consciousness, altered states of awareness, and mind-body relationships.
“In this paper I do not discuss in any detail the material that was presented and discussed in the symposium. My goal is to place the symposium in a larger context by discussing other ideas in the field and then discussing some areas of personal interest that complement the topics covered. In the AAAS symposium, it was possible to deal in depth with only a few of the ideas that have begun to be explored in the area of consciousness. But Drs. Ornstein, Galin, Deikman , and Tart, in dealing with the brain and conscious experiences, have, I believe, begun to bridge the gap between Western understanding of what many call ‘intuitive knowledge’ and scientific observation. They emphasized the different functions of the two hemispheres of the brain, psycho-physical studies of consciousness, and what Tart calls ‘discrete states of consciousness.' Both Deikman and Ornstein related these to ‘esoteric’ Eastern psychologies and mystic experiences.
“My view of human consciousness reflects my background in medicine and my interest in health as well as disease. It has been my experience that to the degree that I am aware of my own consciousness or reality, I can recognize and respond to that of others. It is possible that an understanding of consciousness can have as great an impact on health as have some of the scientific advances in medical care.” (Pg. 1-2)
Robert Ornstein explains, “It is our hope in this symposium to consider a very few elements of this new science: research of the two sides of the brain, implications of our biological duality, research of meditation, and differing modes of appreciation of reality, and a proposal for a new strategy for research in consciousness involving the concept of ‘discrete states’ of consciousness.” (Pg. 25)
David Galin states, “there is more than one way of knowledge, more than one way of validating experience. In addition to the linear, logical approach… there is another mode which is intuitive and holistic, which grasps the relations between the parts directly rather than by a sequence of deductions. These two aspects of our nature, sometimes complementary, sometimes in conflict have been pointed out in art, philosophy, religion and literature for thousands of years; a contemporary example is [Michael] Polayni’s exposition of ‘tacit and explicit knowledge.’ For the past five years Robert Ornstein and I have been exploring brain mechanisms relating to consciousness. We believe that these two ways of knowing are related to the specialization of the cerebral hemispheres for different cognitive modes. The study of how these two half-brains cooperate or interfere with each other has just begun. We believe that this work has important implications beyond experimental neuropsychology; it had led us into major issues in education, psychiatry, anthropology, and philosophy.” (Pg. 27-28)
Ornstein and Galin state, “One major approach to the study of human consciousness is through an analysis of corresponding brain mechanisms. Although the scientific study of subjective experience per se has a long and productive history in psychology, the correlative study of brain and consciousness provides several unique advantages. First, consideration of neural structure can provide guidance in psychological theory construction. Neuroanatomical divisions in the brain may… provide clues to divisions and relationships in cognition and subjective experience. Second, in experiments in which consciousness and ongoing physiological processes can be studied simultaneously, an external indicator of private experience can be developed. The internal experience can never be reduced to its external indicators, but such indicators may prove quite useful simply in marking the occurrence of a certain experience, as rapid eye movements and low-voltage EEG during sleep mark the occurrence of dreaming.” (Pg. 53)
Arthur Deikman asserts, “Let us think of a human being as an organism composed of components as having both psychological and biological dimensions. These components have two basic modes of organization: an ‘action mode’ and a ‘receptive mode.’ The action mode is a state organized to manipulate the environment… In contrast, the receptive mode is a state whose purpose is receiving the environment, rather than manipulation. The sensory [perceptual system] is usually the dominant agency rather than the muscle system… The pervasiveness of the action mode is evident when we consider that our language is its very essence.” (Pg. 77-78)
He continues, “During most of our lives what occurs is probably a mixture of the two modes or at least a fluctuation between them. For the majority of us, that fluctuation is heavily dominated by the action mode. However, it is not the presence or absence of physical activity per se that determines the mode. Rather, the underlying purpose of attitude seems to be crucial… Thus, we are not talking about activity versus passivity as usually conceived, or about the secondary and primary processes of psychoanalytic theory… the bimodal model… addresses itself to a functional orientation---that of taking in versus acting on the environment. The receptive mode is not a ‘regressive’ ignoring of the world or a retreat from it… but is a different strategy for engaging the world in pursuit of a different goal… we can understand renunciation as a strategy to establish the receptive mode as the dominant orientation and to intensify its effects. In most spiritual disciplines a psychosocial system has been developed for use in a monastery or ashram, where technical exercises, communal living, and ideology are integrated to bring about change.” (Pg. 80-81)
Charles Tart explains, “The basic point I shall try to make, as a prelude to discussing what ‘discrete states of consciousness’… and ‘discrete altered states of consciousness’ are, is that our ordinary consciousness is not at all a natural given, but a ‘construction,’ and, in many important ways, a rather arbitrary construct..” (Pg. 91)
Later, Tart says of ‘Major psychedelic drugs,’ “In dealing with the very powerful drugs like LSD, mescaline, or psilocybin, we come into an area of extreme variability of reactions that requires great caution… for almost everyone who takes these… the ordinary state of consciousness is disrupted… We see continuous transition between various kinds of unstable states. The colloquial phrase ‘tripping’ is very apropos; one is continually somewhere but never arriving.” (Pg. 152-153)
He continues, “Now while this is probably true for most of the uses of powerful psychedelics in our culture, it is not universally true. In reading Carlos Castaneda’s fascinating accounts of his work with don Juan one realizes that his initial reactions to psychedelic drugs were like this, but don Juan was not interested in his ‘tripping.’ Instead don Juan tried to train him to STABILIZE the effects of psychedelic drugs so that he could get into a particular [state of consciousness] suited for a particular kind of task at various times. So it would seem that with the addition of further psychological patterning forces to the primarily disruptive forces caused by psychedelic drugs, it is possible that stable states of consciousness can be developed that will have particularly interesting properties.” (Pg. 153)
[However, I would strongly suggest that those interested in Castaneda read ‘Castaneda’s Journey’ and ‘The Don Juan Papers’ by Richard de Mille, and ‘A Magical Journey with Carlos Castaneda’ by his former wife, Margaret Runyan Castaneda.]
This book may interest those interested in ‘alternative’ perspectives on the study of consciousness.
This symposium was presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in February 1974.
Co-presenter Philip Lee wrote in the first chapter, “More than 800 people attended the Symposium on Consciousness … making it one of the largest gatherings at the meeting. This interest, in some ways unanticipated, was a reflection of the growing concern of social, behavioral, and medical scientists, as well as of the general public, about the development of a more adequate and comprehensive understanding of human consciousness. This symposium was not the first effort of the AAAS to explore human consciousness. It is particularly appropriate for this interdisciplinary scientific organization to engage in these discussions. In the last decade, a variety of disciplines, including bioengineering, physics, anthropology, psychology, psychiatry, neurology, neurophysiology, and biochemistry, have been in the forefront of research that has increased our knowledge of human consciousness, altered states of awareness, and mind-body relationships.
“In this paper I do not discuss in any detail the material that was presented and discussed in the symposium. My goal is to place the symposium in a larger context by discussing other ideas in the field and then discussing some areas of personal interest that complement the topics covered. In the AAAS symposium, it was possible to deal in depth with only a few of the ideas that have begun to be explored in the area of consciousness. But Drs. Ornstein, Galin, Deikman , and Tart, in dealing with the brain and conscious experiences, have, I believe, begun to bridge the gap between Western understanding of what many call ‘intuitive knowledge’ and scientific observation. They emphasized the different functions of the two hemispheres of the brain, psycho-physical studies of consciousness, and what Tart calls ‘discrete states of consciousness.' Both Deikman and Ornstein related these to ‘esoteric’ Eastern psychologies and mystic experiences.
“My view of human consciousness reflects my background in medicine and my interest in health as well as disease. It has been my experience that to the degree that I am aware of my own consciousness or reality, I can recognize and respond to that of others. It is possible that an understanding of consciousness can have as great an impact on health as have some of the scientific advances in medical care.” (Pg. 1-2)
Robert Ornstein explains, “It is our hope in this symposium to consider a very few elements of this new science: research of the two sides of the brain, implications of our biological duality, research of meditation, and differing modes of appreciation of reality, and a proposal for a new strategy for research in consciousness involving the concept of ‘discrete states’ of consciousness.” (Pg. 25)
David Galin states, “there is more than one way of knowledge, more than one way of validating experience. In addition to the linear, logical approach… there is another mode which is intuitive and holistic, which grasps the relations between the parts directly rather than by a sequence of deductions. These two aspects of our nature, sometimes complementary, sometimes in conflict have been pointed out in art, philosophy, religion and literature for thousands of years; a contemporary example is [Michael] Polayni’s exposition of ‘tacit and explicit knowledge.’ For the past five years Robert Ornstein and I have been exploring brain mechanisms relating to consciousness. We believe that these two ways of knowing are related to the specialization of the cerebral hemispheres for different cognitive modes. The study of how these two half-brains cooperate or interfere with each other has just begun. We believe that this work has important implications beyond experimental neuropsychology; it had led us into major issues in education, psychiatry, anthropology, and philosophy.” (Pg. 27-28)
Ornstein and Galin state, “One major approach to the study of human consciousness is through an analysis of corresponding brain mechanisms. Although the scientific study of subjective experience per se has a long and productive history in psychology, the correlative study of brain and consciousness provides several unique advantages. First, consideration of neural structure can provide guidance in psychological theory construction. Neuroanatomical divisions in the brain may… provide clues to divisions and relationships in cognition and subjective experience. Second, in experiments in which consciousness and ongoing physiological processes can be studied simultaneously, an external indicator of private experience can be developed. The internal experience can never be reduced to its external indicators, but such indicators may prove quite useful simply in marking the occurrence of a certain experience, as rapid eye movements and low-voltage EEG during sleep mark the occurrence of dreaming.” (Pg. 53)
Arthur Deikman asserts, “Let us think of a human being as an organism composed of components as having both psychological and biological dimensions. These components have two basic modes of organization: an ‘action mode’ and a ‘receptive mode.’ The action mode is a state organized to manipulate the environment… In contrast, the receptive mode is a state whose purpose is receiving the environment, rather than manipulation. The sensory [perceptual system] is usually the dominant agency rather than the muscle system… The pervasiveness of the action mode is evident when we consider that our language is its very essence.” (Pg. 77-78)
He continues, “During most of our lives what occurs is probably a mixture of the two modes or at least a fluctuation between them. For the majority of us, that fluctuation is heavily dominated by the action mode. However, it is not the presence or absence of physical activity per se that determines the mode. Rather, the underlying purpose of attitude seems to be crucial… Thus, we are not talking about activity versus passivity as usually conceived, or about the secondary and primary processes of psychoanalytic theory… the bimodal model… addresses itself to a functional orientation---that of taking in versus acting on the environment. The receptive mode is not a ‘regressive’ ignoring of the world or a retreat from it… but is a different strategy for engaging the world in pursuit of a different goal… we can understand renunciation as a strategy to establish the receptive mode as the dominant orientation and to intensify its effects. In most spiritual disciplines a psychosocial system has been developed for use in a monastery or ashram, where technical exercises, communal living, and ideology are integrated to bring about change.” (Pg. 80-81)
Charles Tart explains, “The basic point I shall try to make, as a prelude to discussing what ‘discrete states of consciousness’… and ‘discrete altered states of consciousness’ are, is that our ordinary consciousness is not at all a natural given, but a ‘construction,’ and, in many important ways, a rather arbitrary construct..” (Pg. 91)
Later, Tart says of ‘Major psychedelic drugs,’ “In dealing with the very powerful drugs like LSD, mescaline, or psilocybin, we come into an area of extreme variability of reactions that requires great caution… for almost everyone who takes these… the ordinary state of consciousness is disrupted… We see continuous transition between various kinds of unstable states. The colloquial phrase ‘tripping’ is very apropos; one is continually somewhere but never arriving.” (Pg. 152-153)
He continues, “Now while this is probably true for most of the uses of powerful psychedelics in our culture, it is not universally true. In reading Carlos Castaneda’s fascinating accounts of his work with don Juan one realizes that his initial reactions to psychedelic drugs were like this, but don Juan was not interested in his ‘tripping.’ Instead don Juan tried to train him to STABILIZE the effects of psychedelic drugs so that he could get into a particular [state of consciousness] suited for a particular kind of task at various times. So it would seem that with the addition of further psychological patterning forces to the primarily disruptive forces caused by psychedelic drugs, it is possible that stable states of consciousness can be developed that will have particularly interesting properties.” (Pg. 153)
[However, I would strongly suggest that those interested in Castaneda read ‘Castaneda’s Journey’ and ‘The Don Juan Papers’ by Richard de Mille, and ‘A Magical Journey with Carlos Castaneda’ by his former wife, Margaret Runyan Castaneda.]
This book may interest those interested in ‘alternative’ perspectives on the study of consciousness.
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