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American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson

Joseph J. Ellis

3.9 · Rating details · 18,323 Ratings · 560 Reviews

Following his subject from the drafting of the Declaration of Independence to his retirement in Monticello, Joseph Ellis unravels the contradictions of the Jeffersonian character. A marvel of scholarship, a delight to read, and an essential gloss on the Jeffersonian legacy.

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Paperback, 440 pages

Published April 7th 1998 by Vintage (first published 1996)

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Dec 25, 2016 Brian rated it it was amazing

It started when I was reading Ambrose’s Undaunted Courage, this niggling feeling of discomfort I get when reading a book when the author seems to be taking opportunities to lionize his/her subjects – or at the very least, portraying them in a simplistic, single facet. I’ve had this issue with Ambrose before (and I know enough about his writing to stay away from his excoriated Eisenhower bio), and while I enjoyed his bio of Meriwether Lewis, it was his portrayal of Thomas Jefferson that had me sc ...more

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Jun 16, 2012 Darwin8u rated it really liked it · review of another edition

Shelves: 2015

“God was not in the details for Jefferson; he was in the sky and stars.”
― Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx

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Ellis' biography of Thomas Jefferson's character is a more difficult task than one might imagine at first. Jefferson while brilliant with words is also a founding father of smoke. He was comfortable with ambiguity, but saw things in black and white. He had a great ability to mask his feelings and deceive himself. He was a visionary and prophet in the mountains whose biggest creation was not ...more

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Jun 20, 2011 Nathan rated it did not like it

Shelves: history, franklin-library

I suppose I knew what I was getting into with this book. The subtitle hints at the fact that this is a pretty thoroughgoing psychological history, rather than a historical narrative. Ellis posits Jefferson as an inscrutable figure shielded from effective analysis by a contradictory philosophy as well as a reserved personality. Both of which may be true, but both of which made this book scanty on real insight. Ellis doesn't spend much time asking why Jefferson was the way he was (a pretty worthwh ...more

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Jun 05, 2012 Jonfaith rated it liked it

A provocative survey of an enlightenment thinker and statesman who could never outdistance his contradictions. My friend Mark Prather selected this for samizdat and a number of us read such and with a formality of discussion. The passage of a couple decades would likely have adjusted those younger impressions.

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Dec 26, 2007 Mike Mcfarland rated it really liked it

Recommends it for: history fans

Shelves: non-fiction

This book is more a series of portraits than a biography. It doesn't tell Jefferson's story in one long arc, but rather captures him at significant periods of his life. This method works well for Ellis (see: Founding Brothers), probably because the broader view allows him to write more lyrically than a stick-to-the-facts biography would allow.

What emerges from Jefferson's portraits is a man with extraordinary powers of self-delusion. These powers enabled him to bemoan slavery while owning slave ...more

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Dec 22, 2012 Jeff rated it did not like it

"American Sphinx", Joseph J Ellis. 1996. Historical revisionist, Joseph J. Ellis, ostensibly enjoys championing himself as a renegade historian, unafraid to attempt to topple one the most well respected and admired of America's founding fathers. Recklessly wielding his anachronistic values upon Thomas Jefferson, "American Sphinx" escalates into a full contact assault on one the most important and revered figures in western culture. Thomas Jefferson is no longer the successful plantation owner, b ...more

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Sep 08, 2010 Damian rated it it was ok

As I read "American Sphinx", an odd thing happened. The more I learnt about Jefferson the less I liked him. The Jefferson of Ellis' biography is an arrogant, obsessive ideologue, whose successes are the lucky results of others' hard work, and whose failures are inevitable given his substantial flaws. As someone who was looking to like Jefferson, this was all pretty disappointing.

Ellis' biography follows Jefferson from his first entrance into public life right until his providential death on Jul As I read "American Sphinx", an odd thing happened. The more I learnt about Jefferson the less I liked him. The Jefferson of Ellis' biography is an arrogant, obsessive ideologue, whose successes are the lucky results of others' hard work, and whose failures are inevitable given his substantial flaws. As someone who was looking to like Jefferson, this was all pretty disappointing.

Ellis' biography follows Jefferson from his first entrance into public life right until his providential death on July 4th 1826 (and the same day as his friend/enemy John Adams). Over the course of this journey, we see Jefferson evolve from a quiet but brilliant polemicist into the leader of the "Republican" faction, which calls for a small and relatively weak central government.

In modern terms, Jefferson of course would have been a contradiction: a progressive who fought his entire life for smaller government. It's this defying of modern political boundaries that allow both sides today to claim as their own.

If Ellis has "an angle", it is his attempt to delve into Jefferson's psyche. His contradictions were too overt, argues Ellis, yet his dialogue too sincere to be hypocrisy. His conclusion is that Jefferson was a master not (just) of deception but of SELF-deception -- he "compartmentalized" certain ideas in parts of his brain where they needed not be bothered by other contradictory ideas that he held just as sincerely. Thus, the small-government president who purchases Louisiana from the French, the anti-slave crusader who is himself a slaveowner, the self-indulgent aristocrat who surrounds himself with luxury, yet spend his entire life in crushing debt, and passes his debt to his children when he dies. This is not hypocrisy, argues Ellis, this is "compartmentalization".

Of course such an argument sounds ridiculous when stated so baldly, and I think for good reason. Ellis is attempting to draw deep psychological conclusions from sources that are entirely public: letters that Jefferson wrote, often with the intention of their being published. Positions he publicly took, or speeches he gave. Each and every one of these had an agenda, and while we may want to believe in "compartmentalization" since it leaves intact the image of the honest Jefferson, there's another much more obvious explanation that Occam demands we accept: political expediency.

Even if -- horror of horrors -- Jefferson turns out to have been a politician, he remains one of the most visionary and influential of our history, and if I took one major realization away from this book, it was this: that one of the central essences of our American flavor of democracy -- the conscious limiting of the rights and powers of the central government, and the constant clamoring for smaller and less at the federal level -- comes directly and almost singularly from Jefferson. Had it been up to Washington, Adams and Hamilton, early democracy in the United States would not doubt have taken a far more European form. As is, Jefferson and his disciples (Madison and Monroe) provided a crucial opposition voice at a crucial time -- a voice that continues to resonate in today's conservative circles and the Tea Party movement. And while I might not agree with that voice all the time, I'm glad it's there.

I would not recommend this book to others as an introduction to Jefferson for three reasons. The first, the psycho-babble described above. Second, the book's odd chronology -- it leaves large gaps in the Jefferson story, including for example, his entire tenure as Secretary of State under Washington, and his second term as president. Was this period really so uneventful, that it doesn't deserve mention? (And really practically no mention is given.)

Third is, I really can't be sure that the portrait Ellis is painting might not itself be a politically skewed one. His portrayal so one-sided that one puts down the book longing for a more objective take. I suspected throughout that Ellis felt his own conclusion so strongly -- that Jefferson was a self-deceiver -- that he was arguing it with his every decision of inclusion or omission. The result is a Jefferson that is at best, a self-deceiver, at worst, a craven hypocrite.

One way or another, Jefferson -- whether the Jefferson of American Sphinx or the Jefferson of Wikipedia -- DOES end up disappointing, if only because the soaring of his ideals clashes so jarringly with his somewhat uglier reality. ...more

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Jun 11, 2016 Tony rated it really liked it

Shelves: biography

AMERICAN SPHINX. (1996). Joseph J. Ellis. ****.
This work was subtitled, “The Character of Thomas Jefferson.” Ellis had previously written a book on the same theme as this one, but about John Adams. What made this work on Jefferson a bit more difficult to write was the lack of early personal letters and documents that were all destroyed in a fire at Jefferson’s home. Much of Ellis’s comments on Jefferson’s early life were developed on an inferential basis – relying on letters and documents writte AMERICAN SPHINX. (1996). Joseph J. Ellis. ****.
This work was subtitled, “The Character of Thomas Jefferson.” Ellis had previously written a book on the same theme as this one, but about John Adams. What made this work on Jefferson a bit more difficult to write was the lack of early personal letters and documents that were all destroyed in a fire at Jefferson’s home. Much of Ellis’s comments on Jefferson’s early life were developed on an inferential basis – relying on letters and documents written by his friends and associates to their circle of associates. Once past this early stuff, however, Ellis had plenty of primary material – all of which he put to good use. I learned a lot about Jefferson – the man – that I didn’t know before, and re-learned much that I had forgotten. The title of the book was aptly chosen: Jefferson was essentially a silent man, keeping most of his thoughts to himself. He was much happier when he was at Monticello, working on his house and in the midst of his books. The two major achievements that most people remember from their history classes about Jefferson was that he wrote the Declaration of Independence, and was in office and negotiated the Louisiana Purchase. The real story of his writing of the Declaration is thoroughly explored in this work – both in its antecedents and in the changes wrought after its submission to the Continental Congress. The other item that has gotten a lot of play among historians and us common people is the Sally Hemings affair. Ellis has devoted an extensive chapter (as an Appendix) on this topic. Where does Ellis stand? I’ll leave that up to you to find out. Jefferson himself was very confused as to how to evaluate his contributions to our country during his terms in office. It is interesting to see his list of accomplishments as he rated himself as he was President. “At some point during the year before his elevation to the presidency Jefferson wrote an uncharacteristically personal note to himself under the title, ‘Memorandum of Services.’ ‘I have sometimes asked myself whether my country is the better for my having lived at all,’ he mused to himself. ‘I have been the instrument of doing the following things; but they would have been done by others; some of them, perhaps, a little better.’ He then went on to list a curious version of his public accomplishments, placing the dredging of the Rivianna River alongside the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, importing olive plants from France beside the efforts to end the slave trade…The two presidential accomplishments that gave him the most satisfaction were the Louisiana Purchase and the retirement of a substantial portion of the national debt.” Overall, this is a fine examination of Jefferson the man, viewed much in the light of his own opinions. Recommended.
...more

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Feb 24, 2017 Nancy (NE) rated it it was amazing

Shelves: non-fiction

I am clearly overwhelmed by this book. There are so many things that standout in this analysis of Jefferson and his influences in development of American government. I feel compelled to go into more detail than usual, purely for my own dissection of the aspects that seemed so pertinent to our current political situation. I had read this with the idea of balancing the negative perspective on Jefferson in the book “Hamilton.” Ellis is both critical and complementary, writing on Jefferson’s weaknes I am clearly overwhelmed by this book. There are so many things that standout in this analysis of Jefferson and his influences in development of American government. I feel compelled to go into more detail than usual, purely for my own dissection of the aspects that seemed so pertinent to our current political situation. I had read this with the idea of balancing the negative perspective on Jefferson in the book “Hamilton.” Ellis is both critical and complementary, writing on Jefferson’s weaknesses, then steering toward his strengths and accomplishments. The author gives voice to both Jefferson’s detractors and his defenders, the real human man as opposed to the glossy textbook image. My own impressions remain mixed. Among the things that confirmed my opinions, was Ellis’s explorations of Jefferson’s many inconsistencies in his principles versus actions,

Jefferson’s years in France fell at the time their revolution was brewing and did much to shape his ideas about generational sovereignty - “the earth belongs to the living.” One should not in his opinion make acts that would bind another generation. In an ideal world perhaps, but was this a realistic understanding of human nature? “Moreover the doctrine of generational sovereignty was yet another version of his utopian radicalism. Madison was surely correct to declare the entire belief wildly impractical and utterly incapable of implementation, but that was beside the point. For the vision of each generation starting from scratch, liberated from the accumulated legacies of past debts, laws, institutionalized obligations and regulations, allowed Jefferson to conjure up his fondest dream, a world where the primal meaning of independence could flourish without any restrictions, where innocence had not yet been corrupted.” The debts and burdens of one would not be passed on to the next? Interesting from many angles but also in light of the fact Jefferson was heavily in debt for the lifestyle he insisted was necessary for a diplomat in Paris, AND heavily in debt on the estate he inherited from his father in law.

He was in general opposed to a strong central government. In a letter to Abigail Adams, he wrote, “The spirit of resistance to government is so valuable on certain occasions that I wish it to be always kept alive. I like a little rebellion now and then. It is like a storm in the atmosphere.” Ellis analysis goes on to say, “His remarks suggested that his deepest allegiances were not to the preservation of political stability but to its direct opposite.” He opposed Federalist visions of an energetic national government because in his view it undermined the original intentions of the American Revolution, wherein lay the opposition to any power accumulated by the King and court. Jefferson hated the balances of power, disliked the Judiciary the most, followed by the Senate. Leaving states to domestic governing and laws and the federal government controlling international relations and policies would have been in line with his philosophy, . But how could this rapidly growing country present a unified front on the global stage if we are so divided regionally, especially two plus centuries later, on our current trajectory? And there appears to be the SAME agrarian/southern vs. urban intellectual/northern divide that has evidently haunted this country for centuries! Fascinating.

Neither was Jefferson an initial supporter of the Constitution, although being in France during its writing, he was negative from afar, preferring the indirect representation through his friends Madison and Monroe. Evidenced in another letter, “The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.” If he couldn’t find support for changes to the Constitution, then his interest lay more in developing a Bill of Rights. While he held obvious affection for his life in France, he was also intensely critical of certain elements of monarchy and lifestyle in his private letters. He totally misinterpreted the potential for violence in the developing stages of the French Revolution and assured his government that changes could be possible without a drop of blood being shed. Later in life, it was shown he doctored some notes so as to not give the impression his fondness for France had created a blind spot.

His internal battles of ideology versus action is further evidenced in his claim that he wavered and backed off taking a firm public stand on abolition and kept slaves himself. There are numerous documented examples of correspondence where it is evident he is addressing his widely varying comments to please its intended audience. He had an intense dislike for conflict and a strong sense of refinement as well as an idealized vision of government. This doesn’t even address the Sally Hemmings business as this book came out before the DNA evidence was in. My edition however does contain an addendum. Jefferson realized there was a difference between Northern and Southern ideas on abolition, and hoped the North would leave the South to work out its own solution. His expectations included gradual emancipation, AND extradition or relocation of the slave population, the latter he also came to realize was no longer possible as the years went by. He was troubled by the Missouri Question. His idealized vision of the westward expansion diluting and diffusing the slavery problem was also unrealistic. In addition, Jefferson does little to champion any causes for the Native American population. While he treated leaders with respect and admiration “mingled with a truly poignant sense of tragedy about their fate as a people… the seeds of extinction for Native American culture were sown under Jefferson.”

Ellis keeps stressing that Jefferson portrayed himself as a private man who disliked conflict, but was also strongly opinionated, competitive and managed his conflicts from afar. During his tenure as secretary of state he felt he was a misfit. In those years, the foundations for the republican party were laid in firm opposition to the Federalists. “And he dispensed political invective of his own, or rather had surrogates do it in his behalf…” He ran away from open differences of opinion. Madison was often the one to do his bidding and this “placed an extremely talented spokesman at the point of attack while allowing Jefferson to remain behind the scenes and above the fray,” but this arrangement “gave credence to the charge that Jefferson was a devious manipulator who played cowardly games with the truth.” This was certainly true in his feud with Hamilton, “fueled by his own personal demons.” His obsessive opposition to Hamilton’s banking system was a reflection of his own indebtedness. He wanted to fix publicly what he couldn’t fix privately.

Ellis is not completely critical by any means. Perhaps one of Jefferson’s greatest contributions during his presidency was the Louisiana Purchase. He wrangled the deal while going against his own goals of retiring the national debt and was accused of being unConstitutional, lacking Congressional approval thus wielding improper use of executive power. He didn’t stick to legalities if he thought the outcome was still in the nation’s best interests. His internal contradictions continued in terms of not allowing representatives in the newly acquired territory any voice in Congress. There is agreement on the importance of neutrality in a still developing nation even though the methods of implementation were in question. Jefferson was also spearheading the early development of public education and what would become the University of Virginia. Interestingly enough, his ideas on university education were very reflective of his ideology of lack of central control. He rejected class levels, traditional rules and any curriculum requirements - no specific courses of study. AND it should be self governing.

America is also not the Christian nation that so many of today’s conservative right wing argues and it was certainly not in our responsibility to convert anyone. Jefferson had written that he didn’t care what his neighbor’s faith was, twenty gods or no gods, it didn’t matter. This caused a fervor among the Federalists who accused him of being an atheist and a heretic. Jefferson wrote a response about the merits of Jesus as a role model and was later quoted in a letter to Benjamin Rush as saying he did reject “the corruptions of Christianity, but not the genuine precepts of Jesus himself.” While he viewed himself a Christian, he wanted to separate a pure simple faith, especially in the moral merits of the person of Jesus, from its institutionalized incarnations. He clearly believed in separation of church and state.

Ellis suggests that Jefferson descended into a “nearly pathological mentality” in his last years, partly due to mounting debts, and “self imposed isolation” that resulted in his sources of political information being “highly partisan and narrowly provincial.” That being said, one can not remove Jefferson’s much debated legacies from their historical context. Ellis puts it quite eloquently when he says, “It should be abundantly clear that the ingrained reticence of historians to translate Jefferson across the ages is rooted in more than mere timidity, it is grounded in a fuller appreciation of the sea of change that separates his world from our own. To extend the image of sand castle on the beach, it is not just that successive waves of change have swamped Jefferson’s core convictions, it is also that the shape of the entire shoreline has been completely reconfigured.” Times have changed and then again they have not.

While of opposing viewpoints and often in conflict with each other, Jefferson and Adams mended their friendship in their later years. Writing frequently in a manner which appeared to be posturing for posterity, they sometimes argued ideology and other times either avoided the discussions or simply agreed to disagree. What had been the real goal of the Revolution? Their differences still ran deep. I loved some of the comparisons Ellis draws of the two men in the final chapters. “Criticism of an idealist by a realist.” Theirs was a clash between “a romantic optimist and an enlightened pessimist.” “The classic debate between a rationalist and an empiricist.” “Something obviously more than a liberal and a conservative. Jefferson’s formulation rendered all political history into a moral clash between benevolent popular majorities and despotic elites…” to which Adams answers, “The fundamental Article of my political Creed is that Despotism, or unlimited Sovereignty, or absolute Power is the same in a Majority of a popular Assembly, an Aristocratical Counsel, an oligarchical Junto and a single Emperor.” Wow - how pertinent is that for today!? “For better or worse, American political discourse is phrased in Jeffersonian terms as a conversation about sovereign individuals who grudgingly and in special circumstances are prepared to compromise that sovereignty for larger social purposes.” ...more

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Mar 04, 2008 Suzanne rated it liked it

Shelves: biography, american-history

I loved the title. The iconic image of Jefferson takes a bit of a hit in this non-traditional biography. He was a brilliant, creative, imaginative and inventive man who helped transform our world with his vision on the role of government and in his writings. He was also a deeply flawed human being. He loved beauty and lived so beyond his financial means that, at his death, his beloved Monticello had to be auctioned off. He despised slavery yet, without them, could not afford his lifestyle. Since ...more

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Jul 18, 2007 Kelly rated it really liked it

Recommends it for: american history geeks

Shelves: history-american, history, examined-lives, 18th-century, great-and-terrible-men

Thomas Jefferson has always been my favorite of the Founding Fathers. I won't deny that part of it is because I do like a good scandal. :) But the other part is because he's simply fascinating. I've always loved thie combination of ego and indulgence, passion and beautiful reason that he exhibits. I love his writings. This book is by the same guy who did "Founding Brothers" (which is also fascinating and won a Pulitzer Prize), so the guy knows what he's talking about. He doesn't reveal much /new ...more

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Oct 11, 2010 Jamie Collins rated it really liked it · review of another edition

Shelves: history-and-biography, american-history

I enjoyed this very much. It's not a straight biography of Jefferson, but as the subtitle says, it's an attempt to analyze his character. The book is very readable if you are reasonably familiar with the important people and events in the early years of America.

It's a fascinating study of the man's inherent contradictions, the most obvious being that Jefferson was a slaveowner who became famous for his writings on equality and personal freedom.

In my 1996 edition of this book, Ellis writes that h ...more

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May 06, 2013 Steve rated it really liked it

http://bestpresidentialbios.com/2013/...

“American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson” by Joseph J. Ellis was published in 1996 and won the 1997 National Book Award in Nonfiction. Ellis is a well-known author and history professor focusing on the revolutionary era. He is probably best known for his Pulitzer Prize winning book “Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation” and has written about Presidents Washington and Adams as well.

“American Sphinx” has been described by some as a “psy http://bestpresidentialbios.com/2013/...

“American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson” by Joseph J. Ellis was published in 1996 and won the 1997 National Book Award in Nonfiction. Ellis is a well-known author and history professor focusing on the revolutionary era. He is probably best known for his Pulitzer Prize winning book “Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation” and has written about Presidents Washington and Adams as well.

“American Sphinx” has been described by some as a “psychological history” of Jefferson, but it is really much more than that: it is part character analysis, part personality profile and part history book. What it is not is a traditional biography or even an abbreviated narrative of Jefferson’s entire life - but as I have discovered by now, this is par for the course for a Joseph Ellis book on a revolutionary-era president.

Instead of following the story of Jefferson’s life in a single, continuous arc “American Sphinx” focuses on five significant periods in his life, observing his thoughts and actions during each of these periods and considering what can be learned about this enigmatic man. In this manner Ellis reflects on the many contradictions Jefferson presents as well as the difficulty he offers those who wish to portray Jefferson either as a hero or a villain, when he is certainly far more complex than that. (Not unlike many of us, he is a little of both…)

But rather than focusing dogmatically on just those five specific periods of his life (while he was in Philadelphia during the Second Continental Congress, in Paris as a diplomat, at Monticello after resigning as secretary of state, during his first presidential term and during his ultimate retirement to Monticello), Ellis pulls as much historical context from the “uncovered” periods as is needed to fully understand appreciate the points he makes and the conclusions he draws.

This book has been called dense by some and, less frequently, one-sided. But it is certainly neither. In contrast to his previous character analysis (“Passionate Sage” about John Adams written three years earlier), Ellis’s book on Thomas Jefferson is surprisingly sprightly and effervescent, lacking the overly-academic feel of the earlier work. And it is remarkably well-balanced; throughout “American Sphinx” Ellis is careful to note Jefferson’s brighter and darker sides, observing his flaws and singing his praises where due.

Of particular interest toward the end of the book, Ellis examines Jefferson’s legacy – noting those aspects which have survived the past two-hundred years undiminished (his emphasis on religious freedom, for instance) and which have been forced to bend to the will of American history and changing times (his zealous pursuit of limited government in almost all circumstances…except when he was president, of course). It is at this point that one of Ellis’s central points – that Jefferson’s actions cannot be easily judged outside the context of his time in history – is most forcefully made.

Overall, I was surprised at how much I enjoyed “American Sphinx,” particularly as Ellis’s previous character analysis (on John Adams) possessed an overly dry and academic tone. ”American Sphinx” on the other hand was colorful and dynamic, while also deep and insightful. But make no mistake- this is not the perfect book for someone just getting acquainted with Jefferson. Even though Ellis replays a great deal of Jefferson’s life in order to fully support his conclusions, this is not a comprehensive account of Jefferson’s entire life. However, as a third or fourth book on Thomas Jefferson, “American Sphinx” truly excels.

Overall rating: 4¼ stars ...more

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Apr 17, 2012 Gary Hoggatt rated it it was ok · review of another edition

Shelves: biography, all-non-fiction, audiobooks, american-revolution-era, history-bio-18th-century, history-bio-19th-century

I have read and enjoyed two books by Joseph J. Ellis in the past. Several years ago, I first encountered Ellis with Founding Brothers and found it a great look into the revolutionary generation. More recently, I read His Excellency: George Washington a couple of months ago and really enjoyed Ellis' presentation of Washington (see my review of His Excellency here on Amazon). So it was with high expectations that I started American Sphinx. Unfortunately, those expectations were not met.

Sphinx is n I have read and enjoyed two books by Joseph J. Ellis in the past. Several years ago, I first encountered Ellis with Founding Brothers and found it a great look into the revolutionary generation. More recently, I read His Excellency: George Washington a couple of months ago and really enjoyed Ellis' presentation of Washington (see my review of His Excellency here on Amazon). So it was with high expectations that I started American Sphinx. Unfortunately, those expectations were not met.

Sphinx is not a biography of Jefferson. It's goal is only to look at his "character" by reviewing selected portions of his life, primarily the writing of the Declaration of Independence, his time in Paris as diplomat, his first presidential term, and retirement. Almost entirely glossed over are his youth, his time as Washington's Secretary of State and his second presidential term. I felt that, not having a full picture, it was harder to jump from period to period, as, for example, the discussion of Jefferson's retirement made oblique references to difficulties in his second term, but did not explain much about them. This biographical issue may not have been as pronounced had I previously read a dedicated Jefferson biography, but unfortunately my exposure to him this far has been through general histories of the Revolution and biographies of his contemporaries.

Now, as for Ellis' discussion of his character itself, I found it difficult to follow. Ellis continually discussed various issues that caused Jefferson to say one thing and think another, or not think about it at all, with frequent - over-used, even - references to Jefferson's "psychological dexterity." I really felt that, after reading Sphinx, that I didn't have much better a grasp on Jefferson than I had at the start, as Ellis seems to either make excuses for Jefferson's inconsistencies and/or fall back to the "psychological dexterity" theme again. Another overused phrase was "Jeffersonian." That may sound odd at first, but describing Jefferson and his thoughts and actions as Jeffersonian over and over again doesn't tell me much. It's like saying the color red is very reddish repeatedly. It doesn't add to the reader's understanding.

Additionally, Ellis spends far too much time discussing what Jefferson has meant to American history and what Jefferson would think of this or that modern development. Frankly, that's not what I was looking to get out of this book, and don't see how it relates much to the reality of Jefferson and his times. References comparing America Online and Jefferson's thought only serve to make the book seem dated.

Speaking of dated, Ellis makes frequent skeptical mention of Jefferson's relationship with Sally Hemings. Scientific evidence uncovered since this book was published has made it clear Jefferson did indeed father children with Hemings. To his credit, Ellis has changed his opinion on the matter in the face of the new evidence. Unfortunately, that doesn't do anything to prevent these sections of the book remaining irrelevant or misleading as written.

I listened to Sphinx on audio book, read by Susan O'Malley. I was not particularly impressed with the narration. O'Malley seemed rough and halting far too often, as if she was looking at the book for the first time as they were recording her.

All in all, I was disappointed by Sphinx since, as I've said, I'd enjoyed Ellis' work before. Perhaps I should have read Sphinx after reading a general Jefferson biography, but one of Ellis' usual strengths is making history accessible and enjoyable to those who aren't as well-read on the topic. Unfortunately, that wasn't the case with Sphinx. ...more

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Jun 14, 2009 Julie rated it did not like it

This book is a well disguised attack on Jeffersonian ideals of smaller government...accomplished through lengthy "psychoanalytic" attacks on Jefferson's character. It amazes me that so many find this illuminating and deserving of the Pulitizer Prize. Ellis chiefly does this by showing Jefferson to be a secretive, ultimately anarchic radical who was incapable of perceiving the need for political governance under the Constitution (the "necessary evil" described by Paine in Commons Sense).

Perhaps m This book is a well disguised attack on Jeffersonian ideals of smaller government...accomplished through lengthy "psychoanalytic" attacks on Jefferson's character. It amazes me that so many find this illuminating and deserving of the Pulitizer Prize. Ellis chiefly does this by showing Jefferson to be a secretive, ultimately anarchic radical who was incapable of perceiving the need for political governance under the Constitution (the "necessary evil" described by Paine in Commons Sense).

Perhaps most telling is the fact that Ellis goes out of his way to explain that he does not consider Jefferson to be insane: "Jefferson was not--let us be clear and emphatic on this point--a mentally unstable person or a man with latent paranoid tendencies. The conspiratorial character of his political thinking in the 1790s...was a common feature of the political literature of the time, and substantial traces of the same feverish mentality can be found in the private correspondence of the entire political leadership...Unless one is prepared to make sweeping psychiatric charges against the vanguard members of the entire revolutionary generation...psychiatric appraisals of Jefferson himself should be recognized as both misleading and unfair." (pp. 155-56 of the paperback edition).

If this in fact is how Ellis really feels about Jefferson, then WHY does it take him 155 pages to get to this statement? And Ellis loses no time in renewing his attack; indeed only letting up on Jefferson long enough to allow him one moment of reverential glory in his description of Jefferson's First Inaugural Address (pp. 214-221).

Indeed, Ellis' other major attempt at denying his own methods of psychological attack is not contained in the main narrative of the book at all; rather, buried in the footnotes for pages 183-186 (note 65). In it Ellis discusses his mistrust for psychohistory and the empirical methods of modern psychoanalysis, whether Freudian, neo-Freudian, or Ericksonian. If Ellis is so skeptical, then why is he so eager to embrace their methods?

The problem with Ellis is that he simply does not agree with Jefferson's ideals. Do not miss his afterword, "The Future of an Illusion," in which he asserts "after 1865, Jefferson's...convictions about the proper distribution of power between state and federal governments, if not completely washed away, were permanently put on the defensive" (p. 352); "the New Deal was in fact the death knell for Jefferson's idea of a minimalist government" (p. 353); and "no one seriously contemplates the elimination of Social Security or the Federal Reserve Board" (p. 355).

Bad news for you, Ellis. We Jeffersonians are still out there.

If you read this book, rush to the nearest bookstore or library and read Ron Paul's "The Revolution: A Manifesto." Make sure to get one for Joseph Ellis, too.

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Apr 12, 2012 Matt rated it really liked it

A convincing and pleasurably readable psychohistory of - let's face it - a very eccentric man. Especially interesting are the passages where Jefferson's official actions are placed in the context of deep personal motivations and conflicts. For example, the author suggests that Jefferson's determination to reduce the national debt was largely based on his inability to pay off his own crushing personal debts. What he could not do for himself, he did for his country.

Like his subject, the author se A convincing and pleasurably readable psychohistory of - let's face it - a very eccentric man. Especially interesting are the passages where Jefferson's official actions are placed in the context of deep personal motivations and conflicts. For example, the author suggests that Jefferson's determination to reduce the national debt was largely based on his inability to pay off his own crushing personal debts. What he could not do for himself, he did for his country.

Like his subject, the author seems almost obsessed at times with certain aspects of Jefferson's contradictory personality, especially his views on slavery. It seems intolerable that the same man who wrote the most famous and eloquent summary of American views on liberty and equality, and who early in his career called in strong terms for the eventual abolition of slavery, could have failed so remarkably in his own life on such a fundamental moral question. Yet while it isn't very useful to condemn a historical figure based on modern values, it is also important to remember that many of Jefferson's contemporaries viewed slavery in basically present-day terms. Jefferson certainly knew about their arguments and even agreed with them, at least in principle. But his own economic situation and his fear that liberation would lead inevitably to vengeful insurrection caused him to continue to hold "the wolf by the ears," right up to his death.

It's always difficult to know what to make of Jefferson. Ellis repeats several times that Jefferson was a moralistic thinker, a man of absolute blacks and whites. But one comes away with the impression that he was in fact all shades of gray. He is the sole author of the Declaration of Independence and he heavily borrowed ideas and even language from other writers. He opposed domestic government power viscerally and was responsible for the extra-constitutional purchase of Louisiana, probably his most important achievement as president. He opposed military buildup during the Adams administration and benefited from it when he sent a fleet to fight the Barbary pirates. He argued, bizarrely, that slavery would dissipate and eventually disappear if it were allowed to expand into the western territories. In the end, he defies neat description, and like so many great men and women, one can read in him what one wishes. He is, as John Adams put it, "a shadow man."

The Sally Hemings affair, which is not after all very important, is mercifully relegated to a few brief comments at the end of the volume.

Finally, my favorite sort of thing: trivia that's interesting only to other nerds. It was Jefferson, and not Washington in his Farewell Address, who coined the term "entangling alliances." ...more

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Dec 22, 2009 Steven Peterson rated it really liked it

Thomas Jefferson, according to the author, was an American Sphinx. And, indeed, there is an elusive quality to Jefferson. As the biography outlines, he could be as vicious a political assassin as there was (e.g., his attacks on John Adams through others, while trying to keep his own hands "clean"), but he did not appear to want to accept or confront this in himself.

At one time, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were great friends, founding cousins, as it were, of the new republic. Both added grea Thomas Jefferson, according to the author, was an American Sphinx. And, indeed, there is an elusive quality to Jefferson. As the biography outlines, he could be as vicious a political assassin as there was (e.g., his attacks on John Adams through others, while trying to keep his own hands "clean"), but he did not appear to want to accept or confront this in himself.

At one time, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were great friends, founding cousins, as it were, of the new republic. Both added greatly to the republic as diplomats abroad. However, Jefferson's "dark side" led to a rupture that lasted some time before they began to repair that relationship.

Ellis' statement following begins to identify his approach to Jefferson (page xvi): ". . .affection and criticism toward Jefferson are not mutually exclusive postures. . . " He goes on to say that (page xvii): "As I have found him, there really is a core of convictions and apprehensions at his center. Although he was endlessly elusive and extraordinarily adroit at covering his tracks, there were bedrock Jeffersonian values that determined the shape of the political vision he projected so successfully onto his world and that remain such a potent factor in ours." Ellis characterizes Jefferson as (page 26) ". . .a flawed creature, a man who combined massive learning with extraordinary naïveté, piercing insights into others with daunting powers of self-deception, utter devotion to great principles with a highly indulged presumption that his own conduct was not answerable to them."

This volume traces his adult career from the Constitutional Convention (and his role in authoring the Declaration of Independence) to his service as a diplomat in Paris to his work in the Washington Administration and retirement to Monticello to his service as President and his subsequent retirement. His great accomplishments and his sometimes nasty actions are documented, as are his continuing unsuccessful efforts to establish a sound economic footing for his plantation. There is also a useful appendix on Sally Hemings.

This is not a massive biography, but it is useful and does a nice job of portraying the "Sphinx"-like quality of one of the most fascinating of our Founders.
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Aug 29, 2009 Audrey rated it it was ok

I really prefer to read biographies in which the author actually has some affection for his subject! Mr. Ellis treated Thomas Jefferson as a neurotic and idealistic man who just happened to experience a few flashes of brilliance because he was at the right place during the right time. Ellis was consistently patronizing and apologetic in his discussions about Thomas Jefferson's thoughts, ideas and actions. I generally expect a biographer to present his subject with an emphasis on his strengths an I really prefer to read biographies in which the author actually has some affection for his subject! Mr. Ellis treated Thomas Jefferson as a neurotic and idealistic man who just happened to experience a few flashes of brilliance because he was at the right place during the right time. Ellis was consistently patronizing and apologetic in his discussions about Thomas Jefferson's thoughts, ideas and actions. I generally expect a biographer to present his subject with an emphasis on his strengths and a few notes on his weaknesses as well. According to Joseph Ellis, Thomas Jefferson was essentially deeply flawed.... unable to form intimate relationships, thin-skinned, radically idealistic, hypocritical, self-deceptive... and the list goes on.

One can't help but wonder if Mr. Ellis saw Jefferson through the lens of his OWN neurosis. Ellis' own unsavory history of self-deception and public lies seems to have been reflected right back onto Thomas Jefferson. After all, isn't it true that it's almost impossible to interpret the thoughts and actions of others except through the lens of our own character? It's the ironic and temporal twist to the Biblical warning: "Judge not that ye be not judged." God will judge us, certainly, but already we judge everyone else according to our own character and our indictments of others certainly indict ourselves just as clearly. As Mr. Ellis seems indeed to have done here.

This biography was also a chronicle of Jefferson's political self mainly; the larger picture of his life was mostly ignored and it is that larger picture that makes Jefferson most interesting, I think. Ellis has written a long analysis of Jefferson's political actions and philosophies with a few personal incidents sprinkled in here and there. I think that possibly the most significant information I gained from the book was a better understanding of Whig philosophy and a clear account of the contest between the Federalists and the Republicans. I expected more of this book. I'm not sorry I read it, though--I just need to read more about Jefferson to get a less polarized opinion of him. ...more

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Mar 24, 2013 Adam rated it really liked it

I find myself a little disappointed by a lot of the reviews for this book. A lot of the complaints and critiques seem to center around the fact that this does not end up being the book they wished it would be, which is sort of absurd to begin with. This isn't a traditional biography, as the subtitle of the book makes abundantly clear. It is not a character assassination either. Ellis presents a character study via several historical vignettes. I found his presentation of Jefferson as a complicat ...more

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Oct 30, 2016 Renee rated it really liked it

Shelves: 2016, biography, non-fiction, history

American Sphinx posits that Thomas Jefferson is not a hypocrite but such an ardent political idealist that he compartmentalized the aspects of himself that he psychologically could not deal with and so self deceived himself. Isn't that the very definition of a hypocrite?

I've perused several reviews who believe Ellis is biased negatively against Jefferson, and that's just not true. I think Ellis is an ardent fan of Jefferson, but wisely, he doesn't shy away from Jefferson's faults; however, he a ...more

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Feb 12, 2008 Matt rated it it was amazing

Shelves: america-fuck-yeah, biography, historyonics-american

I've only read one other book about Jefferson but I've read several others about the founding fathers and I'm absolutely convinced that this is the best I'll ever read about Thomas Jefferson.

Ellis writes incredibly well- poetic, detailed, erudite as all hell, and smoothly- with grace.

He captures what must have been Jefferson's consciousness. Not his mind or soul or heart so much as all three put together and the cloud of ideas and opinions he carried with him, as we all do.

Complex man and a com ...more

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Sep 28, 2015 Peggy Parsons rated it really liked it

Shelves: biographies, nonfiction

I'd give the book a 3 but I'd be rating the subject more than the author. Jefferson was a boring, introverted, man with ridiculous ideas. He preferred writing as a means of communication rather than personal encounters. I believe Jefferson was a plagiarist, from the Declaration of Independence to his thoughts on God stolen from a deist. Thoughts on God was his attempt to prove that he was a Christian when people doubted his faith. Jefferson was in truth a secular humanist. He was a failure as a ...more

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Oct 23, 2015 Alexander Rolfe rated it really liked it

I didn't realize Jefferson was such a wild utopian. One generation should not be able to bind another, with debts, laws, etc? Wow. I found Ellis's elucidation of Jefferson's thinking excellent. He picks out a lot of fun, lively quotes as well. The glimpse I got of Adams through this book makes me want to read John Adams by McCullough next.

I'm docking it one star for being somewhat repetitive, and for the rather tedious tie-ins to today at the beginning and end of the book-- those are dated now, ...more

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Apr 02, 2018 Hilary rated it liked it

Before I read this book I did not have the best opinion of a Jefferson generally based on how he was described in other biographies I have read of Hamilton and Adams. I chose this book because I wanted to keep an open mind about him and his legacy. This book did not help me see Jefferson in a positive light. I can not get past the hypocrisy/cognitive dissonance of certain central beliefs and practices of his (mainly slavery but also his obsession with France). This book does not paint him as a l ...more

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Jul 02, 2017 Jesse Bradstreet rated it it was amazing

9/10

I've always been more of a John Adams guy than a Thomas Jefferson fan. But every great character needs a great foil, and American Sphinx is a great foil to David McCullough's excellent John Adams biography.

I'm not an expert, but this seems like a fair appraisal of Jefferson; Ellis does an especially excellent job of handling the slavery issue, and Jefferson's compelling relationships with Adams and Madison.

Still, I do feel the need to read more Jefferson after this, not just because I'm gr ...more

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Oct 26, 2017 Glenn rated it liked it

If someone is looking for a Jefferson biography in a sub 400 page book, then they shouldn't read this. If you want interesting looks into Jefferson's mind when he wrote the Declaration of Independence, what he thought about the slavery issue, or why he made myriad decisions while in public service, then read this book. The author does a good job of separating fact from fandom. Jefferson was a good leader, but Ellis makes it clear that he shouldn't be considered America's greatest politician. A s ...more

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Apr 02, 2017 Algernon rated it really liked it

Shelves: history, politics

Having enjoyed Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams, I was not disappointed by Ellis's investigation into the character and intellect of the impossibly complex (and morally compromised) figure of Thomas Jefferson.

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Nov 29, 2012 Ob-jonny rated it really liked it

This is the book to read if you want to know about the life of Thomas Jefferson. I learned so much from reading this book that I realize that I really had known nothing about Thomas Jefferson until now except the obvious historical facts and that he was an inventor. His actual political views are fascinating to learn and I think they are easy to understand in today's context. He was moderate compared to the extremist southern states rights faction, but he was very suspicious of big government an This is the book to read if you want to know about the life of Thomas Jefferson. I learned so much from reading this book that I realize that I really had known nothing about Thomas Jefferson until now except the obvious historical facts and that he was an inventor. His actual political views are fascinating to learn and I think they are easy to understand in today's context. He was moderate compared to the extremist southern states rights faction, but he was very suspicious of big government and thought that federal authority and "consolidation" could only lead to corruption. He thought this in the context of monarchical tyranny which made it seem like all centralized power was evil and that the ideal government was the one who governed the least. It sounds like the current day Republicans and Jefferson considered himself a Republican which is interesting. The context is very different now since the government has shown its ability to do good with a minimum of corruption which I guess had never happened before Jefferson's time.

He saw the Federalists as the bringers of this evil and their takeover of the government in the 1790s made the revolution seem pointless to Jefferson. While he was in Europe the Federalists had seemingly ruined what Jefferson had fought for. He considered his election as president to be the revolution of 1800 where he could restore the Republican values which were the true spirit of '76. Although who knows what the Federalists could have done with another generation of presidents. With the hindsight of history, it's kind of sad to realize that the anti-federalist clan which held power during the Jefferson, Madison, Monroe administrations were actually rebelling against a strong central government that was closer to the progressives of the Roosevelt era instead of monarchical tyranny. Jefferson hated Alexander Hamilton but maybe he just misunderstood what the Federalists were really trying to accomplish.

It was interesting to learn details about the interaction between Jefferson and Adams in the latter years of their lives. It allows the reader to appreciate their sense of humor and it makes them seem more human and down to earth. Their letters had the wit and sarcasm of real people as opposed to the stiff, statue-like appearance of the history books.

The book doesn't come to a conclusion about the Sally Hemmings controvery but it along with the Sally Hemmings entry in Wikipedia reveal some amazing details about her and her family that most people don't know. She was 3/4 white and the daughter of Jefferson's father-in-law, and she would not have looked like an ordinary slave girl. She probably had the same coloring as Lolo Jones the olympic hurdler who's 1/4 black 3/4 white. Her children were 7/8 white and all passed for white people except one, the daughters marrying into white Washington DC high society. Her sons were named James Madison Hemmings and Thomas Hemmings. Her family tree was recorded in detail and there is at least as much written about her descendants in a historical context then Jefferson's own legitimate family. Also take into account that Jefferson had been a widower for 10 years before the first Hemmings child was born.

After reading this book I would really like to go back to visit Monticello.

Also, I should point out that the current audiobook version has no problems despite what is written on older reviews. ...more

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Feb 16, 2016 Gabriella Gricius rated it it was amazing

Shelves: 2016-reads, absolutely-fantastic, august-2016

Why Read: Think of me oddly if you'd like, but I love revolutionary American history. There is something incredibly entrancing about learning more about the people who, without a safety net, jumped into the void and created a new country from nothing. Thomas Jefferson has been a controversial character, from his portrayal in Hamilton: The Musical to the podcast the Thomas Jefferson Hour. This book was recommended to me by Clay Jenkinson, the host of the aforementioned podcast and I couldn't resi Why Read: Think of me oddly if you'd like, but I love revolutionary American history. There is something incredibly entrancing about learning more about the people who, without a safety net, jumped into the void and created a new country from nothing. Thomas Jefferson has been a controversial character, from his portrayal in Hamilton: The Musical to the podcast the Thomas Jefferson Hour. This book was recommended to me by Clay Jenkinson, the host of the aforementioned podcast and I couldn't resist giving it a shot.
Review: On July 4, 1826, fifty years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence: Thomas Jefferson passed away (preceded earlier that day by John Adams). How do you characterize the life of a man who is responsible for so many parts of our government, our country and the hypocrisies that drive one another to distraction today? Ellis tries his very best, and without giving too much away, helped me understand why Jefferson was the way he was.
When reading about the founding fathers, it's easy to fall into the habit of thinking these men "godlike." Ellis captures that early on and reminds that although it's easy to see Jefferson as paranoid and full of conspiracies during the revolution and the after-horrors of partisanship and being the President - it was just how the 1790s were. That feverish mentality would follow every character of this age (They had just started a revolution, remember?). I love this book because it goes deeper into not just saying that Jefferson was feverish, read everything he could get his hands on, was positive the Federalists were out to destroy the government, and wished so desperately to be in Monticello that he referred to himself as "savage." No. Ellis goes on to talk about what he might have been thinking, about how Jefferson divided the world into black and whites, the right and the wrong, in order to find that common threat of nationalism that was necessary to create the USA.
The style of writing that takes us through his childhood, the revolution, Jefferson's life abroad and his stint as President is what you'd expect. It's an academic book, after all. That doesn't mean it can't be uniquely fascinating and mind-blowing at the same time. To give you an idea of what I mean, this is one of my favorite quotes about Jefferson's ability as a writer: "The genius of his rhetoric is to articular irreconcilable human urges at a sufficiently abstract level to mask their mutual exclusiveness."
There's a certain cadence that Ellis employs and I found myself swept along by the narrative and compelled by the choice of words and stylistic decisions. So there's that. Tempting as it is to focus on the writing, I want to talk about the narrative. Jefferson's life story is such that one could write hundreds of books about different aspects of it (even if the Shadewell fire destroyed much of his early life) and people have tried. What's so great about this book is that it doesn't aim to fit in every little detail and moment of distinction of my third president. Ellis knows he can't fit it all in, so he makes executive decisions and looks at certain parts rather than others. It's all part of writing a good biography, and this one... it's one of the best.
Rating: 5/5 Stars ...more

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Dec 07, 2010 Bill rated it it was amazing

This review has been hidden because it contains spoilers. To view it, click here. Biographers have a choice on what to emphasize, their subject, the subject’s times or a combination of their subject and times. Again, the writer’s choice is one of emphasis and not one of exclusion. Ellis, who won the National Book Award in 1997 for American Sphinx, chose to emphasize Thomas Jefferson’s character first and then how he related to such events as writing the Declaration of Independence, representing the United States in Paris, serving as Adams Secretary of State and as President.

W Biographers have a choice on what to emphasize, their subject, the subject’s times or a combination of their subject and times. Again, the writer’s choice is one of emphasis and not one of exclusion. Ellis, who won the National Book Award in 1997 for American Sphinx, chose to emphasize Thomas Jefferson’s character first and then how he related to such events as writing the Declaration of Independence, representing the United States in Paris, serving as Adams Secretary of State and as President.

War with England had started by late spring and early summer 1776. The Continental Congress believed that a formal declaration was needed to describe the colonies’ independence. Jefferson, who was representing Virginia at the Congress, was chosen to write the document largely based on his previous writings. Jefferson knew he was a powerful writer and a poor public speaker. He would remain a writer for the rest of his life. As president he communicated largely by letter and after his retirement answered thousands of letters.

As many before him, Ellis notes the hypocrisy between “All men are created equal” and slavery.

Jefferson’s position toward slavery greatly displays his overall character. He owned many slaves, not to mention the Sally Hemings, and as a Virginia planter was dependent on slave labor. He believed the slavery issue would be solved by future generations.

Politically, Jefferson was a Whig and believed in limited government, a guiding principle throughout his life. Under Jefferson these Whig principles were incorporated into the newly formed Republican Party. He was a concept man not bothered by details. For example, he believed that governments should only last a generation. All treaties, laws and contracts would last a generation giving the next generation a new start.

He regarded the almost total elimination of the national debt as one of the primary successes of the first term of his presidency. It is Ellis’ opinion that Jefferson’s strong anti-debt position stemmed from his own significant personal indebtedness to English and Scottish lenders. Monticello was under almost constant very costly construction and enlargement.

The Louisiana Purchase challenged Jefferson’s limited government outlook. He quickly agreed to the purchase, which was promptly implemented by his Republican majority in Congress. The country’s size almost doubled. The purchase was made without regard to the Constitution, which his opponents thought did not provide for such executive action.

Chief among Jefferson’s political enemies were Alexander Hamilton and John Marshall. Hamilton was a leading Federalist advocating a strong central government in contrast to Jefferson’s limited government beliefs. Marshall, as Chief Justice of an independent judiciary, also advocated a strong federal government rather than states rights.

After two terms as president Jefferson retired to his beloved Monticello, his family and his books.

No biography of Jefferson would be complete without addressing the Sally Hemings issue. When he began his research, Ellis doubted the affair occurred. Now, based on very conclusive DNA tests, he believes that Jefferson was the father of several, if not all, of Sally’s children.
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About Joseph J. Ellis

Joseph J. Ellis

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Joseph J. Ellis, a professor of history at Mount Holyoke College, is a nationally recognized scholar of American history from colonial times through the early decades of the Republic. The author of seven books, he is recipient of the National Book Award in Nonfiction for American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson and the Pulitzer Prize for Founding Brothers. He lives in Massachusetts.

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“Jefferson appeared to his enemies as an American version of Candide; Hamilton as an American Machiavelli.” — 7 likes

“In Jefferson's mind great historical leaps forward were almost always the product of a purging, which freed societies from the accumulated debris of the past and thereby allowed the previously obstructed natural forces to flow forward into the future. Simplicity and austerity, not equality or individualism, were the messages of his inaugural march. It was a minimalist statement about a purging of excess and a recovery of essence.” — 5 likes

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