The Therapy of Desire

by Martha C. Nussbaum

The Epicureans, Skeptics, and Stoics practiced philosophy not as a detached intellectual discipline, but as a worldly art of grappling with issues of daily and urgent human significance: the fear of death, love and sexuality, anger and aggression. Like medicine, philosophy to them was a rigorous science aimed both at understanding and at producing the flourishing of human life. In this engaging book, Martha Nussbaum examines texts of philosophers committed to a therapeutic paradigm--including Epicurus, Lucretius, Sextus Empiricus, Chrysippus, and Seneca--and recovers a valuable source for our moral and political thought of today.

Genres: Philosophy, Nonfiction, Psychology, History, Greece, Politics, Sexuality

576 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1994

About the author

Martha C. Nussbaum is Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor at the University of Chicago, appointed in the Law School and the Philosophy Department. Among her many awards are the 2018 Berggruen Prize, the 2017 Don M. Randel Award for Humanistic Studies from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the 2016 Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy.

Reviews

[Jon]

This is a book I started several years ago and have only now gotten around to finishing. If you can ever really be finished with a book like this. A description of the work of the greatest Hellenistic moral philosophers--Epicurus, Seneca, Cicero, Epictetus--that doesn't just summarize their influence on each other and describe their historical significance, but actually engages them, struggles with them, and tries to show in what ways they were right and in what ways wrong. I am not a philosopher, or even somebody whose mind works that way; but Nussbaum manages to pull me along in her complex analyses and keep me fascinated. She has the rare gift of making you eager to read the originals. Right now is a very appropriate time to be reading moral philosophy--to try to understand why some actions are right and others wrong. Books like this should be required reading in MBA programs. I was inspired by this one when I had time to kill in a bookstore a week ago and found a newer work of hers--Upheavals of Thought--and after browsing the index and then turning to her section on Dante, I was so impressed that I decided to buy it. It's next on my list. Her few pages on the famous central scene in the Divine Comedy--where Dante finally meets Beatrice--are amazing. Possibly the best I've ever read on that passage.

[Rachel]

Her book is about Hellenistic philosophers' use of medicine as a metaphor for the practice of philosophy to alleviate suffering. As she explains it, the purpose of philosophy is to heal diseases; diseases caused by false beliefs. It is only after we eliminate false beliefs from our minds can we experience a flourishing life. She then evaluates the adequacy of various schools of philosophy from Plato to Aristotle to the Epicureans to the Skeptics to the Stoics through the point of view of a woman (an insightful twist). A cornucopia of insights with multitudinous applications.

[Paul Fadoju]

I followed the journey of the young lady as she moved from each school to find healing for her soul. And in all the prescriptions I find wisdom.

Martha Nussbaum has weaved a complex story of the ancient world and make it plain to the modern mind.

[Asa]

Forces ancient philosophy to test its own medicine on real patients.

Martha Nussbaum delivers an exact audit of Aristotelianism, Epicureanism, Scepticism, and Stoicism. Her prose cuts out academic jargon. She hands the reader the keys to try each system in daily life.

Her real war is with Michel Foucault. Foucault read these ancient schools as aesthetic care of the self. He viewed them as a collection of personal exercises to shape a life. Nussbaum proves this reading misses the heart of the ancient world. These therapies fail unless the underlying logic is true.

If you get the argument wrong, the psychological cure becomes a placebo. It matters nothing how good the exercise feels.

Nussbaum puts this exact question to the schools. Philosophy promises to act as medicine for the sickness of the human soul. A doctor who decides what health looks like before checking the patient is a fraud. Nussbaum examines the Epicurean community as a machine built to control its own members. She asks whether a philosophy built to cure can leave its evidence free. She shows no mercy to the schools she prefers.

The Epicureans, Aristotelians, and Sceptics chose to alter what a person wants rather than alter the world. The Stoics carry political teeth. In Stoicism, raw reflection is an act of politics.

Forget the popular caricature of the Stoic as a joyless, stone-faced statue. Real Stoicism wrenches you out of inherited social programming and out of rudderless drift. It demands a serene joy.

The Stoics taught for immediate use. The point of the mental training was to make a person available to other human beings, not sealed off from them. A trained Stoic owes a debt to the world.

Those who receive this education must use it to improve life for the oppressed. The system respects individual choice and demands social duty. Stoicism is democratic. It represents the ancient philosophy of the responsibility of intellectuals.

[Paige McLoughlin]

One of the reasons people like the Hellenistic and Roman world is the resonance of a polyglot international empire with forces way beyond the control of a small polity sounds like a distant echo of modernity. So the philosophy of Aristotle, the Stoics, and Epicureans still work so well for individuals in the modern context. That is why some still look to them. Modern cognitive behavioral therapy methods employ them for individuals dealing with a range of problems. The ancient philosophers were no dopes and had to contend with slings and arrows of outrageous fortune that many moderns feel with a world seemingly reeling out of control. Nussbaum gets it and has made their philosophy as a jumping-off point for hers. She of course wants to update it. We don't need to do sexism anymore nor slavery and should actively beat back these and other evils in our world but the Hellenistic school may be of help here. Good stuff.

[Guenevera]

"So philosophy, in these schools, makes itself the doctor of human lives. What should we make of their achievements? A comprehensive philosophical appraisal would require nothing less than answering the fundamental questions of human life. We would need to get clear about what the death of a human being is, and whether it is ever right to fear it; about what forms of attachment to undependable external things a human life needs in order to be complete, and whether one can have these without debilitating uncertainty; about how much uncertainty and need a person can endure, while retaining integrity and practical reason; about whether it is good to love at all, given the pain that love can inflict; about whether virtue itself needs love, and whether, if it does not, it is still sufficient for a complete life; about whether society should be based on love, need, and compassion, or on respect for the dignity of reason; about whether, in order to avoid slavishness, we must allow ourselves angers that can corrode the heart, alienating us from our enemy's humanity and our own. Much of the distinction of Hellenistic ethics lies in the complexity of its description of these problems, and in the fertility of the questions it thus continues to provoke.

"It is likely that there will remain deep division -- among human beings and, perhaps, ithin each human being -- over these questions. For vulnerability is indeed painful, and the life of passionate attachment to externals a perilous and at times a harmful, unjust life. On the other hand, it is difficult to dismiss the thought that these attachments contribute something without which life - and perhaps even virtue itself - is not complete. I am not sure that it is philosophically good to believe that one has an exhaustive, once-and-for-all solution to these problems. If one can lucidly describe their difficulty and one's own perplexity before them, criticizing inadequate accounts and making a little progress beyond what was said in the more adequate, this may stand, perhaps, as a Socratic substitute for arrogant certainty. And that sort of philosophical work should be a good preparation for the complex particular confrontations of life -- not in the spirit of skeptical equipoise and indifference, but in that of the Socratic search for truth and excellence - which retains awareness too, however, of the limitations of human wisdom concerning matters so mysterious and many-sided."

[Valentín Serrano García]

Those who blindly like ONLY analytic philosophy will enjoy this book much. It approaches the matter following a rational and propositional approach, pulling the aristotelian thread.

Anyway, what I like mostly about Nussbaum is that she dares to critizice what the narrow focus of analytic tradition has stressed in this topic. She pushes the logical argument further acknowledging the limits of a rational standpoint. A rational approach cannot make common people change their lives and feelings.The transformation of ourselves is a major issue where, as Nussbaum recognizes, even psychoanalysis and different philosophical trends, which involve the (somehow) irrational desire in their developments, might help much. That's what the book is supposed to offer. But it fails.

Those who, like me, love the diversity and variety of insights provided by eclectic aproaches (continental, analytic, phenomenologic, existentialist and more), will often feel disappointed. Nussbaum tries to widen her scope but she is impeded to get closer to the nature of the philosophical background of antiquity. She doesn't understand the experiential codes, which were enbedded with astrology (even his admired Seneca) , esthetic education and even meditation. She dissmisses many writers and traditions, and seems to label as "superstition" everything which doesn't look "rational" enough. Perhaps she hasn't heard anything about mnemotecnic practices (Metrodoro, gnosticsm) or epopteia.

Finally, sadly, Nussbaum falls prey of a squared jail which prevents her to see all the elements at the horizon. Superficiality, repetition and reductive accounts of metaphors are everywhere. She says she read Pierre Hadot but I think she didn't understood at all what helenism is. Tackling this period as if it were a mathematical contest is misguided.

In spite of this, there is always much to learn from Nussbaum analysis. But if you are not acquainted with greek philosophy and its world (where myths, irrationality, unconscious insights, spirituality, mysticism, ritual, hermetism or astrology play a significant role that has to be elucidated hermeneutically) feel warned about the flaws of this book.

[Jeff]

This is a very nerdy book, but full of brilliance if you can manage the slow trek. The book is a practical commentary on ancient Greek and Roman schools of ethics/psychology. There are moments that will change your thinking about things like anger and death, and that is a momentous feat for some words on a page. In short, Nussbaum is one of the greatest minds on the planet right now, and she reveals it here. I am currently reading it alongside all of the ancient texts she is commenting on in each chapter, and this, to my mind, is how this book is supposed to be read. In sum, if you are the type of person that might refer to Epictetus or ancient skepticism in your everyday speech, then this is a must read. If you are the type who would love to one day read Aristotle, the Epicureans, the Stoics, some day, then this is a great book for you. If you hate reading books that take time and warrant a ton of margin notes, then this will be a painful read.

[Kostas]

It took me more than a year to handle this monster of densely written 500+ pages, but it was definitely worth it. The book presents the ancient philosophical schools that dealt with what we call today "philosophy of life", namely the Epicureans, the Sceptics and the Stoics with frequent reference to Aristotle as well. Martha Nussbaum is a charismatic thinker and author especially because her texts are understandable to the non-experts while they maintain their academic gravity. Besides the presentation of these Schools M.N finds often the opportunity to state her own views adding a lot to the book.
An essential reading to anyone interested in how philosophy can be applied to every day life.

[Colin]

A wonderful book, very scholarly and magisterial, on the nature of three Hellenistic schools of philosophy (Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Stoicism) and their relationship with earlier Aristotelian thought. But most of all, it is an examination of those philosophies as viable, practical ways of living rather than esoteric fields of pure study (which tends to be the modern view of "philosophy," completely at odds with anything the original practitioners would have recognized). My own sympathies lie with Stoicism, so this was a very useful book for me.

[Paul Cardwell]

Nussbaum displays here the practice of philosophy at its very best. She is at the same time brilliantly analytical and deeply human. She engages with the schools of Hellenistic philosophy in a manner which is forensic and detailed without ever losing sight of the reality and primacy of our human lives. Therapy of Desires describes the strengths and shortcomings though of the major schools of Hellenistic philosophy with scholarly insight and, in the final instance, with deep compassion.

[Patrícia Raquel Pereira]

Having already read close to an extensive work by philosopher Martha Nussbaum, I found this book to be one more valuable resource add to my list of books I do refer back to when acknowledging how to live my own life, and to ponder on the important and latent questions. It is mostly intended to study the inner world and its relationship to social conditions through an extended analysis starting with the major Greek philosopher —Aristotle —, and progressing to the Hellenistic philosophical schools — Epicureans, Skeptics, and Stoics.

[E.]

While I have read a number of Nussbaum's books over the last twenty years, I have in the last couple made sure to go back and work through her major texts that I hadn't yet read. This one is yet another excellent book. What a clear thinker, who writes with precision and elegance.

[Jose Luis]

Hermoso libro en el que Nussbaum repasa la ética de Aristóteles y las escuelas helenísticas en relación a las pasiones y otros temas. Quizá los capítulos más complejos son los que toma de base a Lucrecio y su Rerum Natura, pero vale la pena persistir.

[Dwight]

A first-rate work on the Hellenistic schools of philosophy and their practice of "care of the soul," typically conceptualized on analogy with the practice of medicine, or "therapeia," for the soul.

[Sinta]

I have a lot of sympathy for Nussbaum’s conclusion - a more humane Stoicism tempered by Aristotlean theory, which aims at a flourishing life by adopting some therapy of desire through rationality, but still embraces passion as a critical part of that flourishing, given our finitude. To extirpate all anger and violence we would need to extirpate love, as they rely on the same shared commitment to attachment to others. This is too high a cost to pay. So instead we must settle for some Aristotlean mitigation, as well as mercy through narrative understanding. We have to abandon moral perfection, and just do our darn best

I largely agree. I’m not sure I’m completely convinced that love must always require anger, because it neglects the element of temporality. What if your therapeutic training focused on being able to maintain deep attachments while they are loving and morally positive, then ‘turn on’ Stoic detachment when circumstances change? To choose when to engage and when to disengage. I find this is the main method I have developed - because the cost of one way or the other is too large. Nussbaum is a little too happy to accept the turbulence of external attachment - perhaps because she has not experienced the depths of pain that can bring? It is easy to say in theory that pain and anger are human and good, less so to accept that when you have lived it deeply.

That leaves the question as to whether it is possible to oscillate like that. I would say, that is what humans often naturally do. That is the pattern of disassociation then healing that a lot of us embark on. That modern tools of mindfulness aim to actualise - grounding and/or perspective, as needed.

[Raoul W]

An interesting tour through the theory of emotion and reason in ancient Greek and Roman thought, focusing on Aristotelian, Skeptic, Stoic, and Epicurean perspectives. I greatly appreciated learning about early theories linking emotion and reason, exploring deeply held, i.e., unconsciously held, beliefs (a precursor to psychoanalysis), and reflecting on the relevance of narratives and social structures/cultures to our emotional and reasoning lives. All in the name of achieving the good life, of course, which is described in the language of virtues and ethical orientations. You don't have to buy everything that the ancients are selling to enjoy reading about their takes on two of the most fundamental aspects of our lives, emotion and intellect. Do you have a burning questions about troubles in your life? There are answers to be found in this book, and even more questions.

[Doc Schroyer]

This was a powerful book for me, it was also laborious, heady, full of philosophical jargon and bloated.
However, I have tabbed, underlined and highlighted more in this book than Meditations- and it's not even close.

[Mike Monje]

I'll reread it soon.

[Jonah]

Great and immersive account. Gets a little too dense and loses internal structure at the end.

[Christopher Taylor]

In this book Martha Nussbaum looks at four schools of Greek (and Roman) philosophy as “therapy for the soul”: a form of talking cure that clears away problematic attachments and emotions by means of logical arguments. Nussbaum begins with a discussion of Aristotle and then compares his views with those of the Epicureans, Skeptics and Stoics. It is a grand tour of ethics in Hellenistic philosophy (i.e., Greek and Roman philosophy post-Aristotle).

Nussbaum is a well known and highly regarded moral and political philosopher. She writes very well and makes it clear at all times what she is doing or, a least, trying to do. However, the book is scholarly, heavily footnoted and carefully argued to the point that many readers are likely to bog down in places. Patience is required. And if not patience, then a willingness to skim. One or the other, because the book is worth the effort. It provides an introduction and analysis of key strands of thinking in Western moral philosophy. It also highlights the importance of this thinking to our contemporary world. Human nature has not changed very much in the last two thousand years.

The book is long and dense and cannot possibly be summarized in a review. However, some points of interest include: the recurring balance and moderation in Aristotle contrasted with his inherent elitism; the dogmatism and cult aspect of the Epicureans; the high level of detachment taught by the Skeptics – a detachment reminiscent of core Buddhist teachings; and, the complex, almost fraught, thinking of the Stoics in their attempt to provide freedom without nihilism. Above all, there is the profound commitment of all of these thinkers to philosophy as therapy: as a way to live a better life, relieved of pain and disturbance, leading to eudaimonia, a fulfilling and flourishing life.

The Therapy of Desire was originally published in 1994 and reissued with a new introduction in 2009. We should be grateful to Nussbaum and the publisher (Princeton) for keeping it available. The philosophy Nussbaum discusses in this book is as relevant today as ever – a point she makes with great lucidity.

[Rhesa]

This book presents epicureanism, stoicism & skepticism as conceptual & practical "tool" to diagnose & cure mental disease "medically" in ancient greek culture. rewarding read to the max for those who concerned about the nature & legacy of greek philosophy.

[Elizabeth]

Nussbaum is brilliant.

[Oscar]

Excelente.