Qur'ānic Sciences - Essay 2
by Leo Africanus
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Religion & Spirituality
description:
Early manuscripts of the Qur'an compared to later manuscripts; Language and style of Qur'an; Muhkamat and Mutashabihat; Al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh; Tafsir of the Qur'an
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Qur'ānic Sciences - Essay 2
Qur'ānic Sciences - Essay 2
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updated 05/09/07
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Qur'ānic Sciences - Essay 2
Early manuscripts of the Qur'an compared to later manuscripts
The Prophet not only encouraged the memorisation of the Qur’an, drawing on the strong pedigree of the Arabs as an oral-aural community, but firmly promoted its recording in written form. The Qur’an was thus recorded as it was revealed, by specially appointed scribes on a host of materials.
The written word did not have the significance in the eyes of the early Muslims that it later came to enjoy. The traditional transmission of information by word of mouth, relying on a keenly developed ability to memorise, was firmly embedded in the Arab psyche. The role of poetry and the glamorisation of its proponents in propagating a sense of identity and culture can be viewed as but one manifestation of this. As AJ Arberry points out in his ‘An Introduction to the Holy Koran’:
Having no laborious penmanship to intervene between the original composition and its ever-widening audience, it was felt that the authentic text had an excellent chance of being preserved intact and unadulterated; the scribe could slip, by defect of eye and hand; the talented and conscientious rhapsode would not err. The spoken word did not have to depend upon a defective orthography for its accurate transmission.
The original manuscripts of the Qur’an would have drawn on the rather primitive Arabic script in use at the time. The particular rasm (orthography) which was adopted became known as al-rasm al-Uthmani (the Uthmanic orthography).
The distinctive elements of the Arabic orthography used at the time were twofold:
1. No distinction between letters of the alphabet of similar shape (i’jam)
2. No vowel marks (tashkil).
With the current format of orthographic representation of Arabic as the benchmark, it is conceivable that the archaic system of the early Islamic period would have generated a great deal of confusion. According to Professor Abdel Haleem, author of Understanding the Qur’an, ‘this was not actually the case because the morphological patterns of words in Arabic enable readers to read even very unfamiliar material without the short vowels being marked.’ He further argues that in the early Islamic tradition, the written word occupied a secondary niche – akin to a backup copy to the original stored in the hearts and minds of the people.
A combination of internal and external factors combined to alter dramatically both the manner in which the Arabic script, especially of the Qur’an, was written and the station of the written word itself. A realisation that a standardised recitation was a priority for subsequent generations comprised the internal factor. As for external factors, during the caliphate of Uthman, soldiers returning from the Islamic frontiers in Azerbaijan and Armenia reported disputations in the provinces over the recitation of the Qur’an thereby providing a catalyst to the process of refining the orthography.
The two areas of tashkil and i’jam were addressed by the introduction of dots initially to indicate different vowels and to distinguish morphologically similar consonants. Three men are accredited with bringing about these revolutionary changes: Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali , Nasr ibn ‘Asim and Yahya ibn Ya’mur.
Such a radical overhaul obviously attracted some criticism but the diacritical and vowel marks soon became the accepted norm. In fact, the Uthmanic rasm eventually took on an authority of its own and as the science of orthography rapidly advanced, moves to update the Qur’anic script in accordance with orthographic convention were fiercely resisted. The evolution of the diacritical and vowel marks into their current forms is traditionally believed to be down to the efforts of the belligerent governor of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (694-714):
He [al-Hajjaj:] contributed to the development of diacritical marks in Arabic orthography to distinguish such similarly written letters as ba', ta', and tha', dal and dhal, and to the adaptation from Syriac of vowel signs, damma (u), fatha (a) and kasra (i), inserted above and below the consonants. In this orthographic reform he was prompted by the desire to prevent errors in the recitation of the sacred text, of which he evidently prepared a critical revision.
Recent research has however cast doubt over his role in the improvement of the Qur’anic rasm in view of the discovery of Arabic documents exhibiting precocious orthographic maturity dating from the period 22-57 AH.
Language and style of Qur'an
One of the reasons the Qur’an had the impact it did was due to its use of language. It shattered existing literary models by not following any of the conventional metres for prose or poetry. If a literary model were to be applied to the Qur’an, that of saj’, or rhymed, rhythmic, assonanced prose would be most apt. The style lends itself to oral delivery. Muslims scholars such as the tenth-century literary theorist, al-Baqillani, went to great measures to point out the transcendence of the Qur’anic style. Some went as far as to exclude the Qur’an from being categorised as a work of literature. Despite this the Qur’an did set a new standard in Arabic literary style and ‘served as a model for Arab poets and prosodists’.
The fact that the Qur’an was revealed in Arabic has been the subject of much scholarly attention. Many have argued that the mathematical nature of the Arabic language coupled with the multivalency of the Semitic triliteral stem make it ideally suited to communicating a profound divine message. They also stress that the Qur’an being in Arabic does not (and was not intended to) restrict the scope of the Islamic message. The Qur’an itself cites a far more pragmatic reason for it being in Arabic:
And if We had made it a Qur’an in a foreign tongue, they, surely, would have said, ‘Why have not its verses been made clear ? What! A foreign tongue and an Arab Prophet?’ Say, ‘It is a guidance and a healing for those who believe.’
The Qur’an adopts several rhetorical devices to enhance its literary appeal such as parallelisms, elliptical narrative and oaths inter alia. In fact, some of these devices have led Orientalists in particular to cast doubt on the Qur’anic authorship and claim the detection of inconsistencies and fallacies in the text. One such alleged error is the sudden shift in the pronoun of the speaker or the person spoken about in the Qur’anic narrative. The technique is known as iltifat and the allegation has been rigorously rebutted by Professor Abdel Haleem.
Muhkamat and Mutashabihat
The Qur’an lends itself to division along several recognised lines. These include ayaat (verses), suwar (chapters), a’jaaz (sections) and manaazil (sevenths). However, the Qur’an can be further divided along less rigid and subsequently more contentious lines. Examples of such methods include classifying the verses according to whether they were revealed in the pre-migration (Madani) or post-migration (Makki) eras as well as the categorisation of verses into the muhkam or mutashabih.
The Qur’an makes it abundantly clear that it is a lucid book implying that a great deal of the book is understandable without much exegetical effort. Seemingly paradoxically it goes on to subdivide itself into two broad categories which are juxtaposed in the Qur’anic wording: the muhkam and the mutashabih. Muhkam is alternately defined as firm, obvious, clear or indisputable. Mutashabih is an altogether more difficult prospect to elucidate and it is felt that the conventional wording used in translation fails to establish the intent and purport of the original Arabic. The terms allegorical and metaphorical are perhaps the most descriptive available.
The verse (3:7) goes on to describe the muhkam verses as the ‘essence of the book’ reflecting their unambiguous, usually legislative nature. The mutashabih verses are portrayed to be somewhat more opaque though, symbolic of an inner truth that requires deconstruction and potentially misleading. The Prophet himself has stated in this regard:
In truth the Qur’an possesses an inner and outer, and the inner contains seven dimensions.
The two sets of verses are not regarded as mutually exclusive though and in fact constitute a complementary duality wherein one part of the Qur’an serves to clarify another – tafsir al-qur’an bil qur’an. The eighth Shi’a Imam is reported to have considered ‘the person who refers the implicit (mutashabih) verses in the Qur’an to the corresponding clarifying explicit verses,’ as having ‘found guidance to the right path.’ The hidden dimensions of the allegorical verses are believed by Sunni scholars to be known to Allah alone but Shi’a scholars maintain that the Prophet and Imams were, and are, privy to this information.
An example of an apparently allegorical verse being substantiated by a clear verse is the following:
The Beneficent establishes Himself upon the Throne.
The initial import of the verse is highly anthropomorphic but its metaphorical nature is brought to light with reference to verses indicating God’s uniqueness and remoteness from physical representation. Muhammad Asad summarises the views of most commentators thus:
As regards the term ‘arsh…its metaphorical use in the Qur’an is meant to express God’s absolute sway over all His creation.
Al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh
Yet another means of classifying verses of the Qur’an is into nasikh and mansukh. Both are derived from the trilateral Arabic root ‘n-s-kh’ which means to abrogate, abolish or withdraw. Nasikh translates as ‘abrogator’ and mansukh means ‘abrogated’.
The essence of abrogation is the replacement of a command (usually a legal injunction) by an updated directive. The Qur’an itself sets out the theoretical basis for such a process. The principle is not confined to the Qur’an; the notion of prophethood being sealed in the person of Muhammad (saw) implicitly and explicitly involves the abrogation of the previous messengers’ messages.
It is important to note that the abrogated verse still has a significant function in the Qur’anic text and is not regarded by scholars as defunct. One such purpose is to shed light on the development of the Islamic legal code. For instance, in the early Islamic period, alcohol was permitted but followers were encouraged to refrain from praying whilst inebriated. It was only later that a clear prohibition was enforced. This gradual adjustment to practice perfectly demonstrates the appreciation of human nature in response to the imposition of change and also reflected the cumulative nature of revelation itself. From a pragmatic perspective, knowledge of the nasikh and mansukh additionally ensures the correct derivation of Islamic law.
Tafsir of the Qur'an
The science of tafsir is regarded by many as the primary Qur’anic science because it illuminates the content of the holy book – enhancing its accessibility. It is variously translated as exegesis, interpretation and commentary. Tafsir is arguable the oldest of the Qur’anic sciences as the Prophet himself was entrusted with the task of explaining the content of the Qur’an. The baton was enthusiastically received by the companions (sahaba) and the subsequent generations of prominent believers (tabi’un).
Within a couple of centuries formal commentaries on the Qur’an were being compiled and the discipline had been refined considerably partly to counter the intrusion of fabricated hadith literature into the main corpus of explanatory material. Several reasons have been proposed for such an emergence that was severe enough for Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal to comment on it thus:
Three things have no sound base: military virtues, bloody battles and the traditions pertaining to Qur’anic commentary.
These include the preponderance of conjectural statements that were later ascribed to the Prophet despite weak chains of narration as well as the dependence of later commentators on Isra’illiyat or material of dubious para-biblical origin.
Tafsir scholars adhere to certain general principles but will have areas of interest that their studies will focus on such as metaphysics, linguistics and jurisprudence. A sound knowledge of Arabic and the Qur’an itself are regarded as necessary prerequisites. Tafsir al-qur’an bil qur’an is viewed as the gold standard and only once this has been explored is resort to traditions and intellect seen as acceptable. Professor Abdel Haleem makes reference to two key principles which underpin the Qur’an serving as exegesis to itself: al-Qur’an yufassiru ba’duhu ba’dan (different parts of the Qur’an explain one another) and yuhmal al-mutlaq ‘ala-muqayyad (unqualified statements should be interpreted in the light of qualified ones)’.
The Qur’an frequently advocates a meaningful and profound interaction with its text on the part of the reader but the Prophet has warned against whimsically interpreting its passages.
Whoever makes a commentary upon the Qur’an according to his own opinion prepares himself for a place in the Fire.
The reader is encouraged to use their ‘aql (intellect) and complement this with the clarification provided by the reliable sayings of the Prophet, and for the Shi’a, of the Imams in addition.
A distinction must be made between ta’wil and tafsir. The terms are regarded as synonymous by some but others argue that ta’wil has an altogether different connotation. It is derived from the Arabic for ‘first’ and carries with it a sense of moving back to that which is primary in the Qur’an or from the immediately accessible to the less accessible, or hidden dimension of the Qur’an.
Conclusion
The science of orthography (represented in its most refined form by the Egyptian edition of the Qur’an) is but one of the many sciences brought into existence by the emergence of the Qur’an. It is complemented by an array of similarly reactive sciences such as ilm al-tajwid (the science of recitation) to ensure that the Qur’an as revealed to the Prophet and faithfully transmitted by him was preserved for posterity.
The language of the Qur’an is Arabic – not as a means of rendering its content exclusive or inaccessible but in scholarly opinion because it provides the best linguistic container for the divine message. The muhkam and mutashabihat as well as the nasikh and mansukh offer a glimpse at the subtler aspects to subdivisions within the Qur’an. Moreover, they provide an insight into the multifaceted nature of the Qur’an. In a sense the Qur’an as a whole reflects the multivalency exhibited by the Arabic language it consists of.
Tafsir encapsulates aspects of all the other Qur’anic sciences by providing context to the verses of the Qur’an and rendering them more accessible. The role of the individual in interacting with the Qur’an remains a key component of digesting the Qur’anic message. The fruits of the science of tafsir may make the process less laborious and potentially more insightful but a reading of the Qur’an comes with the onus of responsibility firmly on the shoulders of the reader.
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Early manuscripts of the Qur'an compared to later manuscripts
The Prophet not only encouraged the memorisation of the Qur’an, drawing on the strong pedigree of the Arabs as an oral-aural community, but firmly promoted its recording in written form. The Qur’an was thus recorded as it was revealed, by specially appointed scribes on a host of materials.
The written word did not have the significance in the eyes of the early Muslims that it later came to enjoy. The traditional transmission of information by word of mouth, relying on a keenly developed ability to memorise, was firmly embedded in the Arab psyche. The role of poetry and the glamorisation of its proponents in propagating a sense of identity and culture can be viewed as but one manifestation of this. As AJ Arberry points out in his ‘An Introduction to the Holy Koran’:
Having no laborious penmanship to intervene between the original composition and its ever-widening audience, it was felt that the authentic text had an excellent chance of being preserved intact and unadulterated; the scribe could slip, by defect of eye and hand; the talented and conscientious rhapsode would not err. The spoken word did not have to depend upon a defective orthography for its accurate transmission.
The original manuscripts of the Qur’an would have drawn on the rather primitive Arabic script in use at the time. The particular rasm (orthography) which was adopted became known as al-rasm al-Uthmani (the Uthmanic orthography).
The distinctive elements of the Arabic orthography used at the time were twofold:
1. No distinction between letters of the alphabet of similar shape (i’jam)
2. No vowel marks (tashkil).
With the current format of orthographic representation of Arabic as the benchmark, it is conceivable that the archaic system of the early Islamic period would have generated a great deal of confusion. According to Professor Abdel Haleem, author of Understanding the Qur’an, ‘this was not actually the case because the morphological patterns of words in Arabic enable readers to read even very unfamiliar material without the short vowels being marked.’ He further argues that in the early Islamic tradition, the written word occupied a secondary niche – akin to a backup copy to the original stored in the hearts and minds of the people.
A combination of internal and external factors combined to alter dramatically both the manner in which the Arabic script, especially of the Qur’an, was written and the station of the written word itself. A realisation that a standardised recitation was a priority for subsequent generations comprised the internal factor. As for external factors, during the caliphate of Uthman, soldiers returning from the Islamic frontiers in Azerbaijan and Armenia reported disputations in the provinces over the recitation of the Qur’an thereby providing a catalyst to the process of refining the orthography.
The two areas of tashkil and i’jam were addressed by the introduction of dots initially to indicate different vowels and to distinguish morphologically similar consonants. Three men are accredited with bringing about these revolutionary changes: Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali , Nasr ibn ‘Asim and Yahya ibn Ya’mur.
Such a radical overhaul obviously attracted some criticism but the diacritical and vowel marks soon became the accepted norm. In fact, the Uthmanic rasm eventually took on an authority of its own and as the science of orthography rapidly advanced, moves to update the Qur’anic script in accordance with orthographic convention were fiercely resisted. The evolution of the diacritical and vowel marks into their current forms is traditionally believed to be down to the efforts of the belligerent governor of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (694-714):
He [al-Hajjaj:] contributed to the development of diacritical marks in Arabic orthography to distinguish such similarly written letters as ba', ta', and tha', dal and dhal, and to the adaptation from Syriac of vowel signs, damma (u), fatha (a) and kasra (i), inserted above and below the consonants. In this orthographic reform he was prompted by the desire to prevent errors in the recitation of the sacred text, of which he evidently prepared a critical revision.
Recent research has however cast doubt over his role in the improvement of the Qur’anic rasm in view of the discovery of Arabic documents exhibiting precocious orthographic maturity dating from the period 22-57 AH.
Language and style of Qur'an
One of the reasons the Qur’an had the impact it did was due to its use of language. It shattered existing literary models by not following any of the conventional metres for prose or poetry. If a literary model were to be applied to the Qur’an, that of saj’, or rhymed, rhythmic, assonanced prose would be most apt. The style lends itself to oral delivery. Muslims scholars such as the tenth-century literary theorist, al-Baqillani, went to great measures to point out the transcendence of the Qur’anic style. Some went as far as to exclude the Qur’an from being categorised as a work of literature. Despite this the Qur’an did set a new standard in Arabic literary style and ‘served as a model for Arab poets and prosodists’.
The fact that the Qur’an was revealed in Arabic has been the subject of much scholarly attention. Many have argued that the mathematical nature of the Arabic language coupled with the multivalency of the Semitic triliteral stem make it ideally suited to communicating a profound divine message. They also stress that the Qur’an being in Arabic does not (and was not intended to) restrict the scope of the Islamic message. The Qur’an itself cites a far more pragmatic reason for it being in Arabic:
And if We had made it a Qur’an in a foreign tongue, they, surely, would have said, ‘Why have not its verses been made clear ? What! A foreign tongue and an Arab Prophet?’ Say, ‘It is a guidance and a healing for those who believe.’
The Qur’an adopts several rhetorical devices to enhance its literary appeal such as parallelisms, elliptical narrative and oaths inter alia. In fact, some of these devices have led Orientalists in particular to cast doubt on the Qur’anic authorship and claim the detection of inconsistencies and fallacies in the text. One such alleged error is the sudden shift in the pronoun of the speaker or the person spoken about in the Qur’anic narrative. The technique is known as iltifat and the allegation has been rigorously rebutted by Professor Abdel Haleem.
Muhkamat and Mutashabihat
The Qur’an lends itself to division along several recognised lines. These include ayaat (verses), suwar (chapters), a’jaaz (sections) and manaazil (sevenths). However, the Qur’an can be further divided along less rigid and subsequently more contentious lines. Examples of such methods include classifying the verses according to whether they were revealed in the pre-migration (Madani) or post-migration (Makki) eras as well as the categorisation of verses into the muhkam or mutashabih.
The Qur’an makes it abundantly clear that it is a lucid book implying that a great deal of the book is understandable without much exegetical effort. Seemingly paradoxically it goes on to subdivide itself into two broad categories which are juxtaposed in the Qur’anic wording: the muhkam and the mutashabih. Muhkam is alternately defined as firm, obvious, clear or indisputable. Mutashabih is an altogether more difficult prospect to elucidate and it is felt that the conventional wording used in translation fails to establish the intent and purport of the original Arabic. The terms allegorical and metaphorical are perhaps the most descriptive available.
The verse (3:7) goes on to describe the muhkam verses as the ‘essence of the book’ reflecting their unambiguous, usually legislative nature. The mutashabih verses are portrayed to be somewhat more opaque though, symbolic of an inner truth that requires deconstruction and potentially misleading. The Prophet himself has stated in this regard:
In truth the Qur’an possesses an inner and outer, and the inner contains seven dimensions.
The two sets of verses are not regarded as mutually exclusive though and in fact constitute a complementary duality wherein one part of the Qur’an serves to clarify another – tafsir al-qur’an bil qur’an. The eighth Shi’a Imam is reported to have considered ‘the person who refers the implicit (mutashabih) verses in the Qur’an to the corresponding clarifying explicit verses,’ as having ‘found guidance to the right path.’ The hidden dimensions of the allegorical verses are believed by Sunni scholars to be known to Allah alone but Shi’a scholars maintain that the Prophet and Imams were, and are, privy to this information.
An example of an apparently allegorical verse being substantiated by a clear verse is the following:
The Beneficent establishes Himself upon the Throne.
The initial import of the verse is highly anthropomorphic but its metaphorical nature is brought to light with reference to verses indicating God’s uniqueness and remoteness from physical representation. Muhammad Asad summarises the views of most commentators thus:
As regards the term ‘arsh…its metaphorical use in the Qur’an is meant to express God’s absolute sway over all His creation.
Al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh
Yet another means of classifying verses of the Qur’an is into nasikh and mansukh. Both are derived from the trilateral Arabic root ‘n-s-kh’ which means to abrogate, abolish or withdraw. Nasikh translates as ‘abrogator’ and mansukh means ‘abrogated’.
The essence of abrogation is the replacement of a command (usually a legal injunction) by an updated directive. The Qur’an itself sets out the theoretical basis for such a process. The principle is not confined to the Qur’an; the notion of prophethood being sealed in the person of Muhammad (saw) implicitly and explicitly involves the abrogation of the previous messengers’ messages.
It is important to note that the abrogated verse still has a significant function in the Qur’anic text and is not regarded by scholars as defunct. One such purpose is to shed light on the development of the Islamic legal code. For instance, in the early Islamic period, alcohol was permitted but followers were encouraged to refrain from praying whilst inebriated. It was only later that a clear prohibition was enforced. This gradual adjustment to practice perfectly demonstrates the appreciation of human nature in response to the imposition of change and also reflected the cumulative nature of revelation itself. From a pragmatic perspective, knowledge of the nasikh and mansukh additionally ensures the correct derivation of Islamic law.
Tafsir of the Qur'an
The science of tafsir is regarded by many as the primary Qur’anic science because it illuminates the content of the holy book – enhancing its accessibility. It is variously translated as exegesis, interpretation and commentary. Tafsir is arguable the oldest of the Qur’anic sciences as the Prophet himself was entrusted with the task of explaining the content of the Qur’an. The baton was enthusiastically received by the companions (sahaba) and the subsequent generations of prominent believers (tabi’un).
Within a couple of centuries formal commentaries on the Qur’an were being compiled and the discipline had been refined considerably partly to counter the intrusion of fabricated hadith literature into the main corpus of explanatory material. Several reasons have been proposed for such an emergence that was severe enough for Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal to comment on it thus:
Three things have no sound base: military virtues, bloody battles and the traditions pertaining to Qur’anic commentary.
These include the preponderance of conjectural statements that were later ascribed to the Prophet despite weak chains of narration as well as the dependence of later commentators on Isra’illiyat or material of dubious para-biblical origin.
Tafsir scholars adhere to certain general principles but will have areas of interest that their studies will focus on such as metaphysics, linguistics and jurisprudence. A sound knowledge of Arabic and the Qur’an itself are regarded as necessary prerequisites. Tafsir al-qur’an bil qur’an is viewed as the gold standard and only once this has been explored is resort to traditions and intellect seen as acceptable. Professor Abdel Haleem makes reference to two key principles which underpin the Qur’an serving as exegesis to itself: al-Qur’an yufassiru ba’duhu ba’dan (different parts of the Qur’an explain one another) and yuhmal al-mutlaq ‘ala-muqayyad (unqualified statements should be interpreted in the light of qualified ones)’.
The Qur’an frequently advocates a meaningful and profound interaction with its text on the part of the reader but the Prophet has warned against whimsically interpreting its passages.
Whoever makes a commentary upon the Qur’an according to his own opinion prepares himself for a place in the Fire.
The reader is encouraged to use their ‘aql (intellect) and complement this with the clarification provided by the reliable sayings of the Prophet, and for the Shi’a, of the Imams in addition.
A distinction must be made between ta’wil and tafsir. The terms are regarded as synonymous by some but others argue that ta’wil has an altogether different connotation. It is derived from the Arabic for ‘first’ and carries with it a sense of moving back to that which is primary in the Qur’an or from the immediately accessible to the less accessible, or hidden dimension of the Qur’an.
Conclusion
The science of orthography (represented in its most refined form by the Egyptian edition of the Qur’an) is but one of the many sciences brought into existence by the emergence of the Qur’an. It is complemented by an array of similarly reactive sciences such as ilm al-tajwid (the science of recitation) to ensure that the Qur’an as revealed to the Prophet and faithfully transmitted by him was preserved for posterity.
The language of the Qur’an is Arabic – not as a means of rendering its content exclusive or inaccessible but in scholarly opinion because it provides the best linguistic container for the divine message. The muhkam and mutashabihat as well as the nasikh and mansukh offer a glimpse at the subtler aspects to subdivisions within the Qur’an. Moreover, they provide an insight into the multifaceted nature of the Qur’an. In a sense the Qur’an as a whole reflects the multivalency exhibited by the Arabic language it consists of.
Tafsir encapsulates aspects of all the other Qur’anic sciences by providing context to the verses of the Qur’an and rendering them more accessible. The role of the individual in interacting with the Qur’an remains a key component of digesting the Qur’anic message. The fruits of the science of tafsir may make the process less laborious and potentially more insightful but a reading of the Qur’an comes with the onus of responsibility firmly on the shoulders of the reader.
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