Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West

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Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West

3.66 of 5 stars 3.66 · rating details · 155 ratings · 32 reviews

Spanning two and a half millennia, Anthony Pagden’s mesmerizing Worlds at War delves deep into the roots of the “clash of civilizations” between East and West that has always been a battle over ideas, and whose issues have never been more urgent.

Worlds At War begins in the ancient world, where Greece saw its fight against the Persian Empire as one between freedom and slave...more Spanning two and a half millennia, Anthony Pagden’s mesmerizing Worlds at War delves deep into the roots of the “clash of civilizations” between East and West that has always been a battle over ideas, and whose issues have never been more urgent.

Worlds At War begins in the ancient world, where Greece saw its fight against the Persian Empire as one between freedom and slavery, between monarchy and democracy, between individuality and the worship of men as gods. Here, richly rendered, are the crucial battle of Marathon, considered the turning point of Greek and European history; the heroic attempt by the Greeks to turn the Persians back at Thermopylae; and Salamis, one of the greatest naval battles of all time, which put an end to the Persian threat forever.

From there Pagden’s story sweeps to Rome, which created the modern concepts of citizenship and the rule of law. Rome’s leaders believed those they conquered to be free, while the various peoples of the East persisted in seeing their subjects as property. Pagden dramatizes the birth of Christianity in the East and its use in the West as an instrument of government, setting the stage for what would become, and has remained, a global battle of the secular against the sacred. Then Islam, at first ridiculed in Christian Europe, drives Pope Urban II to launch the Crusades, which transform the relationship between East and West into one of competing religious beliefs.

Modern times bring a first world war, which among its many murky aims seeks to redesign the Muslim world by force. In our own era, Muslims now find themselves in unwelcoming Western societies, while the West seeks to enforce democracy and its own secular values through occupation in the East. Pagden ends on a cautionary note, warning that terrorism and war will continue as long as sacred and secular remain confused in the minds of so many.
Eye-opening and compulsively readable, Worlds at War is a stunning work of history and a triumph of modern scholarship. It is bound to become the definitive work on the reasons behind the age-old and still escalating struggle that, more than any other, has come to define the modern world–a book for anyone seeking to know why “we came to be the way we are.”(less)

Hardcover, 656 pages

Published March 25th 2008 by Random House (first published March 11th 2008)

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Sep 19, 2008 BCKnowlton rated it 4 of 5 stars

Pagden’s first chapter summarizes the most telling episodes of Herodotus’ Histories, including not only the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, but also the constitutional debate that preceded the accession of Darius to the Persian throne and the deliberations instigated by the Persian King Xerxes prior to his invasion of Greece. Before Darius became king, the Persians considered the constitutional alternatives to monarchy, with one Persian aristocrat, named Otanes, arguing for democracy. Darius, h...more Pagden’s first chapter summarizes the most telling episodes of Herodotus’ Histories, including not only the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, but also the constitutional debate that preceded the accession of Darius to the Persian throne and the deliberations instigated by the Persian King Xerxes prior to his invasion of Greece. Before Darius became king, the Persians considered the constitutional alternatives to monarchy, with one Persian aristocrat, named Otanes, arguing for democracy. Darius, however, makes the case for their sticking with kingship; and then makes sure that he’s the one who becomes king. Pagden writes that “At this moment in their history, the Persians could have followed the path the Athenians had taken at the end of the sixth century, when Cleisthenes introduced the rule of the majority into Athens. Herodotus, who is writing what amounts to a chronicle of the power of democracy to triumph over monarchy, has given them their chance, but they have turned it down” (16-17). Darius’ son Xerxes, having decided to invade Greece and already given the orders for the mustering of an enormous invasion force, rather unaccountably solicits the advice of his court. He wants to invade, but he wants a debate. Mardonius, one of his generals, praises the king and endorses his plan. Artabanus, one of his uncles, is the only other one to speak, and only dares to speak because of his kinship with the king. He points out that in a debate both sides should be heard, and goes on to make a strong case against the invasion. Xerxes responds angrily that if Artabanus had not been his uncle, he would lose his head for speaking his mind. The invasion will go forward, but Artabanus will be left behind with the women. Pagden writes that “Once again reasoned disputation is suppressed by precisely what Otanes had identified as one of monarchy’s greatest weaknesses: the inability of a monarch to listen to the voices of any but those who tell him what he wishes to hear” (28-29).
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Jun 30, 2012 Dale rated it 2 of 5 stars

Disappointed

Anthony Pagden's Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West was a book I was really looking forward to reading. It sat on my wish list for months and when I saw it just sitting there at my local library I greedily snatched it up and considered myself lucky to even have found it checked in.

Thank goodness I did not waste my money buying it.

I suppose the problem with a book of this nature is that it is bound to disappoint - some things will be "too" highlighted, some...more Disappointed

Anthony Pagden's Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West was a book I was really looking forward to reading. It sat on my wish list for months and when I saw it just sitting there at my local library I greedily snatched it up and considered myself lucky to even have found it checked in.

Thank goodness I did not waste my money buying it.

I suppose the problem with a book of this nature is that it is bound to disappoint - some things will be "too" highlighted, some left out. Even worse for this book, niggling factual errors crop up that bother the careful reader and throw into doubt the validity of the more complicated interpretations of the work as a whole.

Positives:

The book is quite readable and you must give a tip of the hat to anyone who undertakes such a large and sweeping history.

Negatives:

The anti-religious comments taint large sections of the book: "...nor have I made any attempt...to disguise the fact that I believe the myths perpetrated by all monotheistic religions - all religions indeed- have caused more lasting harm to the human race that any other set of beliefs..." (p. xix) In my opinion, his anti-religious bias does immeasurable harm to this history because holders of religious belief are held in disdain. This is a history full of religious beliefs, perhaps even based on it. Viewing all of those beliefs as despicable and marginalizing them leads to some of the more simplistic interpretations noted in other reviews of this book.

-The author comments that in this book Christianity "seems to fare slightly better than Islam in this story..." (p. xix) but I really doubt that. At least he spent several pages on the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam. He doesn't even bother to tell about the life of Jesus (not even a "supposed" version) or a history of St. Paul (whom he refers to in passing several times, but the uninformed reader is left, well, uninformed.) Imagine, a history of the West without even a page devoted to the beginnings of Christianity...

Read more: http://dwdsreviews.blogspot.com/2011/...(less)

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Dec 22, 2011 John rated it 3 of 5 stars

Exhaustive but interesting perspective on the struggle between East and West. Mr. Pagden puts everything from Thermopylae to Islamic fundamentalism into grand historical context. As much as there are differences - sometimes very stark - the similarities and the borrowing between world views and cultures are also emphasized. The central thesis of the west's apparent superiority seems to be that the west got the reins of power out of the hands of their kings and their churches, freeing up creative...more

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Apr 21, 2010 Cameron Willis rated it 1 of 5 stars

A very disappointing book. The contents are a much smarter and more nuanced standard of clash of civilizations type: the West, which is, for whatever reason, democratic, rational, liberal, pitted against 'the East', here only the Arab Middle East, Iran and Turkey, which is despotic, irrational, arbitrary and everything else we're supposed to hate. Mind you, Pagden is at least aware that these concepts are not just innate or natural, and he attempts to add some social, economic and political anal...more

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Nov 13, 2011 Ryan rated it 4 of 5 stars

Shelves: nonfic-history

I found this book a fascinating exploration of the long history of conflict between East and West, and the way the powers in charge of each sphere (whether Greek, Trojan, Roman, Persian, Christian, Muslim, French, Ottoman, British, or Arabic) have often seen themselves as inheritors of all the earlier struggles. Of course, it should be noted right away that by “The East”, Pagden generally means the near and middle east, the lands from Asia Minor to the region that's modern Iran -- China, India,...more I found this book a fascinating exploration of the long history of conflict between East and West, and the way the powers in charge of each sphere (whether Greek, Trojan, Roman, Persian, Christian, Muslim, French, Ottoman, British, or Arabic) have often seen themselves as inheritors of all the earlier struggles. Of course, it should be noted right away that by “The East”, Pagden generally means the near and middle east, the lands from Asia Minor to the region that's modern Iran -- China, India, and Japan don’t figure into the book at all. In fact, his focus is really more on the development of the West and its experience with the East than the reverse.

It should also be noted that Pagden has a strong bias towards liberal, secular, democratic values, which he feels are the essence of Western culture (he states as much in the forward). Religion, both Christianity and Islam, are portrayed in a dim light, as institutional obstacles to reason, human rights, and progress. Not that I don’t largely agree with this assessment, but some readers might take offense. Still, he seems to be fair-minded about it, giving Muslim societies credit for brief periods of learning and relative tolerance, and indicting the modern West for its more counterproductive forays into the Middle East, which understandably stoked the fires of Muslim distrust and resentment. Indeed, the final chapter warns, convincingly, of continued bloody conflict between an uncompromising pan-Islamic worldview, whose adherents have enjoyed few of the fruits of the West and see little of their value, and countries like the US, whose leaders naively assume that their own democratic attitudes are universally held, and fail to account for a divide with deep historic roots.

However, I don’t want to place too much emphasis on modern politics, which take a back seat to the fact that this is a comprehensive, well-researched history, outlining many episodes over 2,500 years that I was only dimly aware of (e.g. Napoleon’s adventures in Egypt), and pulling them into a readable, continuous narrative. Especially interesting was reading of the ways in which the West’s often-skewed perception of the East as an "other" to strive against has nonetheless shaped its own attitudes towards freedom, tolerance, and science.(less)

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Jun 27, 2010 Hans rated it 3 of 5 stars

Shelves: history, social-commentary

A 3000 year old drama still plays itself out on the worlds stage between cultures that have adopted powerfully differing world views. Though Anthony Pagden does take some license with generalizations and simplifications in painting entire civilizations with a broad brush. This is done using the cliche and misleading paradigm of East vs. West. Not everyone within the respective cultures agrees with what the said culture is said to believe in.

So in keeping with Pagden's simplification I will do i...more

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Oct 02, 2009 Greg Tatum rated it 3 of 5 stars

Shelves: history

A very large look at the span of conflict between the east and west. I enjoyed it, and felt I got a lot out of it. There was a bit of overlap with some of the other readings I had done recently, but it was nice to review I guess.

My biggest gripe would be that it was told primarily from a western perspective of eastern cultures, and didn't paint a very good picture of eastern cultures.

I think a lot of people would have issue with this book and its blatantly anti-religion stance on the source of c...more

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Apr 30, 2013 Eddy Allen rated it 4 of 5 stars

Shelves: arts-and-historical

Worlds At War begins in the ancient world, where Greece saw its fight against the Persian Empire as one between freedom and slavery, between monarchy and democracy, between individuality and the worship of men as gods. Here, richly rendered, are the crucial battle of Marathon, considered the turning point of Greek and European history; the heroic attempt by the Greeks to turn the Persians back at Thermopylae; and Salamis, one of the greatest naval battles of all time, which put an end to the Per...more Worlds At War begins in the ancient world, where Greece saw its fight against the Persian Empire as one between freedom and slavery, between monarchy and democracy, between individuality and the worship of men as gods. Here, richly rendered, are the crucial battle of Marathon, considered the turning point of Greek and European history; the heroic attempt by the Greeks to turn the Persians back at Thermopylae; and Salamis, one of the greatest naval battles of all time, which put an end to the Persian threat forever.

From there Pagden’s story sweeps to Rome, which created the modern concepts of citizenship and the rule of law. Rome’s leaders believed those they conquered to be free, while the various peoples of the East persisted in seeing their subjects as property. Pagden dramatizes the birth of Christianity in the East and its use in the West as an instrument of government, setting the stage for what would become, and has remained, a global battle of the secular against the sacred. Then Islam, at first ridiculed in Christian Europe, drives Pope Urban II to launch the Crusades, which transform the relationship between East and West into one of competing religious beliefs.

Modern times bring a first world war, which among its many murky aims seeks to redesign the Muslim world by force. In our own era, Muslims now find themselves in unwelcoming Western societies, while the West seeks to enforce democracy and its own secular values through occupation in the East. Pagden ends on a cautionary note, warning that terrorism and war will continue as long as sacred and secular remain confused in the minds of so many.
Eye-opening and compulsively readable, Worlds at War is a stunning work of history and a triumph of modern scholarship. It is bound to become the definitive work on the reasons behind the age-old and still escalating struggle that, more than any other, has come to define the modern world–a book for anyone seeking to know why “we came to be the way we are.”(less)

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May 02, 2010 Kendra rated it 4 of 5 stars

I'd give this book 4 stars with a few misgivings for not having given it only 3 stars. While I learned a lot about the the political and religious developments over 2.5 millenium in both the east and the west, there were parts of the book that dragged due to my unfamiliarity with the historical figures responsible for governing in the east during the time of the Ottoman Empire's primacy over the west. There also isn't any analysis as to how the current financial interconnectivity of east and wes...more

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Dec 22, 2009 Kim rated it 3 of 5 stars

It was an interesting summary for what it covered. The author was only interested in the conflict between "East" and "West" and his theory of how religion plays its role in this conflict, so many wars are not touched on at all, but it's pretty sweeping as it is. He showed me a new perspective on some of these conflicts and I believe that will lead me to more detailed study, but I'm not sold on his overarching theory of how ruinious religion is/was/will always be. Worth a read and probably a re-r...more

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Feb 16, 2010 Andy rated it 3 of 5 stars · review of another edition

Shelves: history

A very hit and miss affair. The authors seeks to portray a continuous struggle between between east (The Middle East) and west over 2500 years from the Greek-Persian wars up to the present day. The problem is he doesn't seem to know the subject that well. The coverage of everything before the early modern period is littered with errors - including some real howlers. At one point it is stated that the Roman Empire reached as far as the Indus valley and then a couple of pages later, that both the...more A very hit and miss affair. The authors seeks to portray a continuous struggle between between east (The Middle East) and west over 2500 years from the Greek-Persian wars up to the present day. The problem is he doesn't seem to know the subject that well. The coverage of everything before the early modern period is littered with errors - including some real howlers. At one point it is stated that the Roman Empire reached as far as the Indus valley and then a couple of pages later, that both the Indians and the Namibians were neighbours of Rome!
Where the book does come into it own is in the chapters about the development of modern Europe and the subsequent interaction of westerners with the Islamic world (and also China, which gets attention for a few pages, but is completely ignored for the rest of the book). These are extremely well written and well worth reading. It is clear that the author knows what he is talking about here as a much more balanced view is given when contrasted with the previous chapters and the conclusion, both of which seem simply to point the finger at the Middle East and Islam in particular.
To suggest, as the book seems to, that there is a continuity between the wars of the classical period and the current 'war on terror' and ascribe this t western secularism and liberty vs eastern theocracy and despotism is pretty far-fetched to me (the Persians were not Muslims and politically, religiously and philosophically therefore have little or no relevant relationship with Islam). The author makes some fair points about the problems that can result from the lack of separation of the state and religion that is implicit in Islam, but seems to suggest that this is intrinsic to the religion and will never change, whereas elsewhere he demonstrates precisely the opposite when charting the development of the Ottoman Empire from Islamic world-empire, though absolutist despotism, to the modern Turkish nation-state.
The real problem with the book is that while the best bits are very good, they are undermined by the polemical and ill-informed accompaniments.(less)

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Jan 12, 2010 William rated it 3 of 5 stars

Choose the right theme and you can organize the chaotic sweep of history into a coherent tale the reader can grasp. Anthony Pagden tried his best in "Worlds at War--The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West." But I have to wonder if the topic was too big for the book.

Pagden's thesis is deceptively easy. "The West" long embodied individualism, inquiry and initiative while "The East" stressed subservience, statism and stasis. The theme gets a good start as the author compares classical Greece...more Choose the right theme and you can organize the chaotic sweep of history into a coherent tale the reader can grasp. Anthony Pagden tried his best in "Worlds at War--The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West." But I have to wonder if the topic was too big for the book.

Pagden's thesis is deceptively easy. "The West" long embodied individualism, inquiry and initiative while "The East" stressed subservience, statism and stasis. The theme gets a good start as the author compares classical Greece with its nemesis, Persia. The east vs. west theme proceeds through new couplets--Rome vs. Parthia, Byzantium vs. Sassanid Persia, Christianity vs. Islam, secular democracy vs. theocratic autocracy. The story changes, but remains the same.

Pagden could have used a good editor, if anything to fix the small errors that annoy the reader. Ottoman Turks level the walls of Constantinople with their "canons." I never knew law books were more destructive than artillery! What a difference a missing letter makes. Names and dates are sometimes cited with casual approximation. Why is it too difficult for a historian to be precise? names and dates are the the bread and butter of his trade!

But the greater error is the structure of the narrative. The similarities of "individualistic West" and "authoritarian East" do not carry through smoothly. There were times when Christian western peoples had less freedoms than their heathen opponents. A serf in Medieval France or Germany was "bound to the soil" while a Moslem was free to wander the entire globe-spanning breadth that marked the realm of his faith.

Similarly, Pagden's narrative has to go into fast forward and rewind whenever he hits a "bump in the road." Ottomans, Safavid Persians and stillborn Arab nationalism all get their turns, each explained, but the author then must wind his tale back to pick up where he diverged, just to keep the narrative on track. The side trips were meant to be informative, but make the narrative jagged. By book's end, the reader wonders if the tale is about Christianity vs. Islam, or Greece vs. Persia. Yeah, the "east vs. west" theme is kind of there, but the shift from Classical to Medieval, then from Medieval to Modern, is jagged and grinding, as if the author failed to step on the clutch while shifting his epochal gears.

For someone who is clueless about the relationship between Western and non-Western history, "Worlds at War" is a good starter book. But the reader is advised to keep going. Pagden just gave you the road map. Further exploration is your responsibility.

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Jul 29, 2011 Nilesh rated it 5 of 5 stars

Excellent history of clash between estern and western ways of thinking, particularly European and Middle-Eastern in today's parlance. I am sure the struggle was not seen as such for most time, but the shape given to the struggle goes on to explain at least some of what is going on now. The book is perhaps too superficial given the timeframe it is covering but a brilliant read for anyone interested in key events.

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Aug 01, 2008 Ajay Singh rated it 4 of 5 stars Recommends it for: Katie Salisbury

This book masterfully describes the 2,500-year struggle between East and West and is the latest in a string of scholarly but highly accessible historical epics for which the author is noted. As one of the world's foremost experts on empire, Anthony Pagden delineates the boundaries between East and West, highlighting how nations are built on shared memories, both good and bad, and why victory and defeat in battles is an important element of nationhood. Educated in Chile, Spain, France and Oxford,...more

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Aug 10, 2012 John Reas rated it 5 of 5 stars

Any student of history will be fascinated by this historical account of the roots of the conflict in the Middle East that can be traced back to the earliest times of the Persian conquest of Greece, and how that set the stage for the turmoil that has continued on to present times.

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Feb 14, 2012 Christopher Lascelles rated it 5 of 5 stars

I loved this book. If you enjoyed this then also recommend Why the West Rules for Now by Ian Morris. Pagden has a great writing style (more so than I will ever have!) and he does not assume much prior historical knowledge. I think this book should be required reading.

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Sep 05, 2010 David rated it 3 of 5 stars

Shelves: european-history, military-history, asian-history, middle-east

A good survey that is marred by sub-par analysis. If you don't know the history of this period it is a very useful book...but if you are looking for a good analysis of the issues you will not find it here...at least nothing original. But worth a look.

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Nov 15, 2011 Paul Callister rated it 4 of 5 stars

Shelves: history

A really good primer on the historical factors that lead to the "irreconcilable differences" between East (middle east) and West. it does leave the reader troubled as to the future of two great civilizations.

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Dec 07, 2008 Dave rated it 5 of 5 stars

One of the clearest accounts of the "battle" between east and west that I have read. Highly recommended.

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Dec 15, 2011 Ronn rated it 4 of 5 stars

Very informative and relative to current events but takes a big commentment to read. I needed to have Encyclopedic World Atlas, dictionary and Wikipedia on hand constantly but glad to have read it.

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Jun 01, 2011 Chip rated it 4 of 5 stars

A far reaching, in-depth look at the struggle of Europe and Islam. Very interesting and fair minded.

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Apr 28, 2010 Chris Vanamburg rated it 5 of 5 stars

Loved the book, Gave a great idea of East vs. West from the Persians to the US

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Jul 28, 2011 Paul Blankenship rated it 4 of 5 stars

Interesting history of the east-west conflict in world history.

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Jun 19, 2012 Jackie rated it 4 of 5 stars

Very good history of the war between East and West and how religion is in the middle of it all.

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Jun 10, 2012 Jonathan Biddle rated it 3 of 5 stars

Shelves: audiobooks, 2012

Good historical overview of the differences between the West and the East (and by "East" he primarily deals with Middle East area, not China and India). This book can definitely be tedious, however, as Pagden goes to great lengths to relate details that are insignificant to his thesis.

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Apr 11, 2009 Garrett rated it 4 of 5 stars

Shelves: history

This book offers an exceptional survey of the interaction and struggle between East and West from the time of the Ancient Greeks to the current conflicts. I was floored by the differences and historical incidences that continue to influence our time.

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May 16, 2012 مؤرخ rated it 2 of 5 stars · review of another edition

Shelves: تاريخ

كتاب جيد بشكل عام، إلا أن معلوماته القيمة تختص بالحديث عن الجانب الغربي، أما الجانب الإسلامي فمعلوماته التي يبني عليها نتائج غالباً ما تكون مغلوطة وبالتالي فرأيه غير دقيق. ويظهر أن ذلك راجع لاعتماده على الترجمات للمصادر الإسلامية بشكل كامل

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May 12, 2011 Steve rated it 1 of 5 stars

Shelves: wasted-time

Very poor Book. Author, regardless of his lack of religious background, ought to keep his prejudices to himself. Very Simplistic retelling of
world history with no depth of understanding. A waste of time and money.

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Jan 06, 2012 Luke rated it 4 of 5 stars

Very informative, if a bit dry and long winded. Great resource for a complete overview of the conflict between east and west.

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Sep 22, 2008 Kyle Nipp rated it 3 of 5 stars

Shelves: audiobook

This book explores the wars between Europe and Asia (AKA East Vs. West) from the time of The Iliad to the present.

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About Anthony Pagden

Anthony Pagden was educated in Santiago (Chile), London, Barcelona and Oxford and holds a B.A.. M.A. and D.Phil. from the University of Oxford. He has been a free-lance translator and a publisher in Paris a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, Senior Research Fellow of the Warburg Institute (London), Professor of History at the European University Institute (Florence), University Reader in Intellectu...more Anthony Pagden was educated in Santiago (Chile), London, Barcelona and Oxford and holds a B.A.. M.A. and D.Phil. from the University of Oxford. He has been a free-lance translator and a publisher in Paris a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, Senior Research Fellow of the Warburg Institute (London), Professor of History at the European University Institute (Florence), University Reader in Intellectual History and Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge and the Harry C. Black Professor of History at Johns Hopkins. He joined UCLA in the Fall of 2002. His research has concentrated on the relationship between the peoples of Europe and its overseas settlements and those of the non-European world from the Atlantic to the Pacific. He is primarily interested in the political theory of empire, in how the West sought to explain to itself how and why it had come to dominate so much of the world, and in the present consequences of the erosion of that domination. His research has led to an interest in the formation of the modern concept of Europe and most recently in the roots of the conflict between the ‘West’ and the (predominantly Muslim) ‘East’. He has also written on the history of law, and on the ideological sources of the independence movements in Spanish-America, and is currently completing a book on cosmopolitanism and the Enlightenment . He has written or edited some fifteen books, the most recent of which are, Lords of all the World. Ideologies of Empire in Britain, France and Spain (1995), Peoples and Empires (2001), La Ilustración y sus enemigos (2002), Worlds at War, The 2500 year struggle between East and West (2008), and, as editor, The Idea of Europe from Antiquity to the European Union (2002). – all of which have been translated into several European and Asian languages. He is a regular contributor to the Times Literary Supplement, and The London Review of Books, and has written for The New Republic, The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, Il Sole 24 Ore (Milan), El Mundo (Spain), El Pais, (Spain) and La Nueva Provincia (Argentina).

He teaches classes in the history of political thought from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, in the theory of international relations, and seminars on imperialism and nationalism and on the theory of racism and ethnicity since antiquity.(less)

More about Anthony Pagden...

Books by Anthony Pagden

Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present

Lords of all the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France c.1500-c.1800

The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology

European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism

The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union

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